Neuropsychological Functioning in Veterans with Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Associations with Performance Validity, Comorbidities, and Functional Outcomes

Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society

Volumn 22, Issue 4, 2016, Pages 399-411

  Wrocklage, Kristen M ^a,b   Schweinsburg, Brian C ^a,b,c   Krystal, John H ^a,b,c,d   Trejo, Marcia ^a,b   Roy, Alicia ^a,b,c   Weisser, Valerie ^a,b   Moore, Tyler M ^e   Southwick, Steven M ^a,c   Scott, J Cobb ^e,f  

^a National Center for PTSD   (United States)

^b VA CONNECTICUT HEALTHCARE SYSTEM   (United States)

^c YALE UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^d YALE NEW HAVEN HOSPITAL   (United States)

^e UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA   (United States)

^f VETERANS AFFAIRS MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

Cognitive abilities; Executive functions; Memory; Neuropsychology; Occupational functioning; Posttraumatic stress disorder; Quality of life

Indexed keywords

ADULT; ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE; ATTENTION; COGNITION DISORDERS; COMORBIDITY; COMPLICATION; EXECUTIVE FUNCTION; FEMALE; HUMAN; INJURY SCALE; MALE; MEMORY; NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL TEST; PHYSIOLOGY; PSYCHOLOGY; QUALITY OF LIFE; STRESS DISORDERS, POST-TRAUMATIC; VETERAN; YOUNG ADULT;

ADULT; ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE; ATTENTION; COGNITION DISORDERS; COMORBIDITY; EXECUTIVE FUNCTION; FEMALE; HUMANS; MALE; MEMORY; NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS; QUALITY OF LIFE; STRESS DISORDERS, POST-TRAUMATIC; TRAUMA SEVERITY INDICES; VETERANS; YOUNG ADULT;

EID: 84958766836     PISSN: 13556177     EISSN: 14697661     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S1355617716000059     Document Type: Article

References (92)

1. Alonso, J., Angermeyer, M.C., Bernert, S., Bruffaerts, R., Brugha, T.S., Bryson, H., ESEMeD/MHEDEA 2000 Investigators, European Study of the Epidemiology of Mental Disorders (ESEMeD) Project. (2004). Disability and quality of life impact of mental disorders in Europe: Results from the European Study of the Epidemiology of Mental Disorders (ESEMeD) project. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica. Supplementum, (420), 38-46. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0047.2004.00329.x
2. American Congress of Rehabilitation Medicine. (1993). Definition of mild traumatic brain injury. Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 8(3), 86-87.
3. American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing.
4. Andreou, C., Bozikas, V.P. (2013). The predictive significance of neurocognitive factors for functional outcome in bipolar disorder. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 26(1), 54-59. http://doi.org/10.1097/YCO.0b013e32835a2acf
5. Antshel, K.M., Biederman, J., Spencer, T.J., Faraone, S.V. (2014). The neuropsychological profile of comorbid post-traumatic stress disorder in adult ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorders, 1087054714522512. http://doi.org/10.1177/1087054714522512
6. Antshel, K.M., Kaul, P., Biederman, J., Spencer, T.J., Hier, B.O., Hendricks, K., Faraone, S.V. (2013). Posttraumatic stress disorder in adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Clinical features and familial transmission. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 74(3), e197-e204. http://doi.org/10.4088/JCP.12m07698
7. Asmundson, G.J.G., Stapleton, J.A., Taylor, S. (2004). Are avoidance and numbing distinct PTSD symptom clusters? Journal of Traumatic Stress, 17(6), 467-475. http://doi.org/10.1007/s10960-004-5795-7
8. Aupperle, R.L., Melrose, A.J., Stein, M.B., Paulus, M.P. (2012). Executive function and PTSD: Disengaging from trauma. Neuropharmacology, 62(2), 686-694. http://doi.org/10.1016/j. neuropharm.2011.02.008
9. Barker, M.J., Greenwood, K.M., Jackson, M., Crowe, S.F. (2004). Persistence of cognitive effects after withdrawal from long-term benzodiazepine use: A meta-analysis. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 19(3), 437-454. http://doi.org/10.1016/S0887-6177(03)00096-9
10. Barker, M.J., Greenwood, K.M., Jackson, M., Crowe, S.F. (2005). An evaluation of persisting cognitive effects after withdrawal from long-term benzodiazepine use. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 11(3), 281-289. http://doi.org/10.1017/S1355617705050332
11. Barrash, J., Denburg, N.L., Moser, D.J., Woolson, R.F., Schumacher, A.J., Doebbeling, B.N. (2007). Credibility of neuropsychological performances of Persian Gulf War veterans and military control subjects participating in clinical epidemiological research. Military Medicine, 172(7), 697-707.
12. Beck, A.T., Steer, R.A., Brown, G.K. (1996). Beck Depression Inventory-II. San Antonio, TX: Harcourt Brace.
13. Berndt, E.R., Bailit, H.L., Keller, M.B., Verner, J.C., Finkelstein, S.N. (2000). Health care use and at-work productivity among employees with mental disorders. Health Affairs (Millwood), 19(4), 244-256.
14. Berry, D.T., Allen, R.S., Schmitt, F.A. (1991). Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure: Psychometric characteristics in a geriatric sample. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 5(2), 143-153. http://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/13854049108403298
15. Bigler, E.D., Farrer, T.J., Pertab, J.L., James, K., Petrie, J.A., Hedges, D.W. (2013). Reaffirmed limitations of meta-analytic methods in the study of mild traumatic brain injury: A response to Rohling et al. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 27(2), 176-214. http://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2012.693950
16. Blake, D.D., Weathers, F.W., Nagy, L.M., Kaloupek, D.G., Gusman, F.D., Charney, D.S., Keane, T.M. (1995). The development of a clinician-administered PTSD scale. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 8(1), 75-90. http://doi.org/10.1002/jts.2490080106
17. Boyle, E., Cancelliere, C., Hartvigsen, J., Carroll, L.J., Holm, L.W., Cassidy, J.D. (2014). Systematic review of prognosis after mild traumatic brain injury in the military: Results of the international collaboration on mild traumatic brain injury prognosis. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 95(3S), S230-S237. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmr.2013.08.297
18. Bremner, J.D., Randall, P., Scott, T.M., Capelli, S., Delaney, R., McCarthy, G., Charney, D.S. (1995). Deficits in short-term memory in adult survivors of childhood abuse. Psychiatry Research, 59(1-2), 97-107. http://doi.org/10.1016/0165-1781(95)02800-5
19. Breslau, N., Lucia, V.C., Alvarado, G.F. (2006). Intelligence and other predisposing factors in exposure to trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder: A follow-up study at age 17 years. Archives of General Psychiatry, 63(11), 1238-1245. http://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.63.11.1238
20. Brewin, C.R., Kleiner, J.S., Vasterling, J.J., Field, A.P. (2007). Memory for emotionally neutral information in posttraumatic stress disorder: A meta-analytic investigation. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 116(3), 448-463. http://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.116.3.448
21. Burriss, L., Ayers, E., Ginsberg, J.,& Powell, D.A. (2008). Learning and memory impairment in PTSD: Relationship to depression. Depression and Anxiety, 25(2), 149-157.
22. Bustamante, V., Mellman, T.A., David, D., Fins, A.I. (2001). Cognitive functioning and the early development of PTSD. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 14(4), 791-797. http://doi.org/10.1023/A:1013050423901
23. Casada, J.H., Roache, J.D. (2005). Behavioral inhibition and activation in posttraumatic stress disorder. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 193(2), 102-109. http://doi.org/10.1097/01.nmd.0000152809.20938.37
24. Cohen, B.E., Neylan, T.C., Yaffe, K., Samuelson, K.W., Li, Y., Barnes, D.E. (2013). Posttraumatic stress disorder and cognitive function: Findings from the mind your heart study. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 74(11), 1063-1070. http://doi.org/10.4088/JCP.12m08291
25. Conners, C.K. (2000). Conners' Continuous Performance Test II (CPT II V. 5). North Tonawanda, NY: Multi-Health Systems Inc.
26. Crowell, T.A., Kieffer, K.M., Siders, C.A., Vanderploeg, R.D. (2002). Neuropsychological findings in combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 16 (3), 310-321. http://doi.org/10.1076/clin.16.3.310.13851
27. Danckwerts, A., Leathem, J. (2003). Questioning the link between PTSD and cognitive dysfunction. Neuropsychology Review, 13(4), 221-235.
28. Daniels, J.K.,McFarlane, A.C., Bluhm, R.L.,Moores, K.A., Clark, C.R., Shaw, M.E., Lanius, R.A. (2010). Switching between executive and default mode networks in posttraumatic stress disorder: Alterations in functional connectivity. Journal of Psychiatry & Neuroscience, 35(4), 258-266.
29. Delis, D.C., Kaplan, E., Kramer, J.H. (2001). Delis-Kaplan executive function system (D-KEFS). San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.
30. Delis, D.C., Kramer, J.H., Kaplan, E., Ober, B.A. (2000). California Verbal Learning Test-Second Edition: CVLT-II. San Antonio, TX: Pearson.
31. Demakis, G.J., Gervais, R.O., Rohling, M.L. (2008). The effect of failure on cognitive and psychological symptom validity tests in litigants with symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 22(5), 879-895. http://doi.org/10.1080/13854040701564482
32. Denning, J.H. (2012). The efficiency and accuracy of the Test of Memory Malingering trial 1, errors on the first 10 items of the test of memory malingering, and five embedded measures in predicting invalid test performance. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 27(4), 417-432. http://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acs044
33. Errico, A.L., Nixon, S.J., Parsons, O.A., Tassey, J. (1990). Screening for neuropsychological impairment in alcoholics. Psychological Assessment, 2(1), 45-50. http://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.2.1.45
34. First, M.B., Spitzer, R.L., Gibbon, M., Williams, J.B. (2002). Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV-TR Axis I Disorders, Research Version, Patient Edition. (SCID-I/P). New York: Biometrics Research, New York State Psychiatric Institute.
35. Flaks, M.K., Malta, S.M., Almeida, P.P., Bueno, O.F.A., Pupo, M.C., Andreoli, S.B., Bressan, R.A. (2014). Attentional and executive functions are differentially affected by post-traumatic stress disorder and trauma. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 48(1), 32-39. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2013.10.009
36. French, L., McCrea, M., Baggett, M. (2008). The military acute concussion evaluation (MACE). Journal of Special Operations Medicine, 8(1), 68-77.
37. Geuze, E., Vermetten, E., de Kloet, C.S., Hijman, R., Westenberg, H.G.M. (2009). Neuropsychological performance is related to current social and occupational functioning in veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. Depression and Anxiety, 26(1), 7-15. http://doi.org/10.1002/da.20476
38. Gilbertson, M.W., Paulus, L.A., Williston, S.K., Gurvits, T.V., Lasko, N.B., Pitman, R.K., Orr, S.P. (2006). Neurocognitive function in monozygotic twins discordant for combat exposure: Relationship to posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 115(3), 484-495. http://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.115.3.484
39. Golier, J.A., Harvey, P.D., Legge, J., Yehuda, R. (2006). Memory performance in older trauma survivors: Implications for the longitudinal course of PTSD. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1071, 54-66. http://doi.org/10.1196/annals.1364.006
40. Grant, I., Rourke, S.B. (2009). The neurobehavioral correlates of alcoholism. In I. Grant & K. Adams (Eds.), Neuropsychological assessment of neuropsychiatric and neuromedical disorders (3rd ed., pp. 398-454). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
41. Harrington, K.M., Miller, M.W., Wolf, E.J., Reardon, A.F., Ryabchenko, K.A., Ofrat, S. (2012). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder comorbidity in a sample of veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 53(6), 679-690. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2011.12.001
42. Heilbronner, R.L., Sweet, J.J., Morgan, J.E., Larrabee, G.J., Millis, S.R., Conference Participants. (2009). American Academy of Clinical Neuropsychology Consensus Conference Statement on the neuropsychological assessment of effort, response bias, and malingering. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 23(7), 1093-1129. http://doi.org/10.1080/13854040903155063
43. Hinkin, C.H., Hardy, D.J., Mason, K.I., Castellon, S.A., Durvasula, R.S., Lam, M.N., Stefaniak, M. (2004). Medication adherence in HIV-infected adults: Effect of patient age, cognitive status, and substance abuse. AIDS, 18(Suppl. 1), S19-S25.
44. Hiscock, M., Hiscock, C.K. (1989). Refining the forced-choice method for the detection of malingering. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 11(6), 967-974. http://doi.org/10.1080/01688638908400949
45. Hoge, C.W., Terhakopian, A., Castro, C.A., Messer, S.C., Engel, C.C. (2007). Association of posttraumatic stress disorder with somatic symptoms, health care visits, and absenteeism among Iraq war veterans. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 164(1), 150-153. http://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.164.1.150
46. Horner, M.D., Hamner, M.B. (2002). Neurocognitive functioning in posttraumatic stress disorder. Neuropsychology Review, 12(1), 15-30. http://doi.org/10.1023/A:1015439106231
47. Horner, M.D., Mintzer, J.E., Turner, T.H., Edmiston, K.R., Brawman-Mintzer, O. (2013). Attentional functioning in patients with posttraumatic stress disorder: A preliminary study. CNS Spectrums, 18(2), 90-94. http://doi.org/10.1017/S1092852912000909
48. Jelinek, L., Jacobsen, D., Kellner, M., Larbig, F., Biesold, K.-H., Barre, K., Moritz, S. (2006). Verbal and nonverbal memory functioning in posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 28(6), 940-948. http://doi.org/10.1080/13803390591004347
49. Jones, D., Kazis, L., Lee, A., Rogers, W., Skinner, K., Cassar, L., Hendricks, A. (2001). Health status assessments using the Veterans SF-12 and SF-36: Methods for evaluating outcomes in the Veterans Health Administration. The Journal of Ambulatory Care Management, 24(3), 68-86.
50. Jovanovski, D., Erb, S., Zakzanis, K.K. (2005). Neurocognitive deficits in cocaine users: A quantitative review of the evidence. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 27(2), 189-204. http://doi.org/10.1080/13803390490515694
51. Kazis, L.E., Selim, A.,Rogers, W.,Ren,X.S., Lee,A.,& Miller, D.R. (2008). Veterans RAND 12-Item Health Survey (VR-12): A white paper summary. Unpublished manuscript. Accessed August 15.
52. Keane, T.M., Fairbank, J.A., Caddell, J.M., Zimering, R.T., Taylor, K.L., Mora, C.A. (1989). Clinical evaluation of a measure to assess combat exposure. Psychological Assessment, 1(1), 53. http://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.1.1.53
53. Kessler, R.C., Ames, M., Hymel, P.A., Loeppke, R., McKenas, D.K., Richling, D.E., Ustun, T.B. (2004). Using the World Health Organization Health and Work Performance Questionnaire (HPQ) to evaluate the indirect workplace costs of illness. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine/American College of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 46(6 Suppl.), S23-S37.
54. Kessler, R.C., Sonnega, A., Bromet, E., Hughes, M., Nelson, C.B. (1995). Posttraumatic stress disorder in the National Comorbidity Survey. Archives of General Psychiatry, 52(12), 1048-1060. http://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1995.03950240066012
55. Marcotte, T.D., Rosenthal, T.J., Roberts, E., Lampinen, S., Scott, J.C., Allen, R.W., Corey-Bloom, J. (2008). The contribution of cognition and spasticity to driving performance in multiple sclerosis. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 89(9), 1753-1758. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmr.2007.12.049
56. Marx, B.P., Doron-Lamarca, S., Proctor, S.P., Vasterling, J.J. (2009). The influence of pre-deployment neurocognitive functioning on post-deployment PTSD symptom outcomes among Iraq-deployed Army soldiers. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 15(6), 840-852. http://doi.org/10.1017/S1355617709990488
57. McAllister, T.W., Stein, M.B. (2010). Effects of psychological and biomechanical trauma on brain and behavior. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1208, 46-57. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2010.05720.x
58. McGurk, S.R., Mueser, K.T. (2006). Cognitive and clinical predictors of work outcomes in clients with schizophrenia receiving supported employment services: 4-year follow-up. Administration and Policy in Mental Health, 33(5), 598-606. http://doi.org/10.1007/s10488-006-0070-2
59. McNally, R.J., Shin, L.M. (1995). Association of intelligence with severity of posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms in Vietnam Combat veterans. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 152(6), 936-938.
60. Meyers, J.E., Meyers, K.R. (1995). Rey Complex Figure Test and Recognition Trial: Professional manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc.
61. Mohamed, S., Rosenheck, R., Swartz,M., Stroup, S., Lieberman, J.A., Keefe, R.S.E. (2008). Relationship of cognition and psychopathology to functional impairment in schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 165(8), 978-987. http://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2008.07111713
62. Nijdam, M.J., de Vries, G.-J., Gersons, B.P.R., Olff, M. (2015). Response to psychotherapy for posttraumatic stress disorder: The role of pretreatment verbal memory performance. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 76(8), e1023-1028. http://doi.org/10.4088/JCP.14m09438
63. O'Bryant, S.E., Gavett, B.E., McCaffrey, R.J., O'Jile, J.R., Huerkamp, J.K., Smitherman, T.A., Humphreys, J.D. (2008). Clinical utility of Trial 1 of the Test of Memory Malingering (TOMM). Applied Neuropsychology, 15(2), 113-116. http://doi.org/10.1080/09084280802083921
64. Olff, M., Polak, A.R., Witteveen, A.B., Denys, D. (2014). Executive function in posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and the influence of comorbid depression. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, 112, 114-121. http://doi.org/10.1016/j. nlm.2014.01.003
65. Parslow, R.A., Jorm, A.F. (2007). Pretrauma and posttrauma neurocognitive functioning and PTSD symptoms in a community sample of young adults. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 164(3), 509-515. http://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.164.3.509
66. Pietrzak, R.H., Goldstein, R.B., Southwick, S.M., Grant, B.F. (2012). Psychiatric comorbidity of full and partial posttraumatic stress disorder among older adults in the United States: Results from wave 2 of the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 20(5), 380-390. http://doi.org/10.1097/JGP.0b013e31820d92e7
67. Pirogovsky, E., Woods, S.P., Filoteo, J.V., Gilbert, P.E. (2012). Prospective memory deficits are associated with poorer everyday functioning in Parkinson's disease. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 18(6), 986-995. http://doi.org/10.1017/S1355617712000781
68. Richardson-Vejlgaard, R., Dawes, S., Heaton, R.K., Bell, M.D. (2009). Validity of cognitive complaints in substance-abusing patients and non-clinical controls: The Patient's Assessment of Own Functioning Inventory (PAOFI). Psychiatry Research, 169(1), 70-74. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2008.06.018
69. Roca, V., Freeman, T.W. (2001). Complaints of impaired memory in veterans with PTSD. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 158(10), 1738-1739. http://doi.org/10.1176/appi. ajp.158.10.1738-a
70. Rohling, M.L., Larrabee, G.J., Millis, S.R. (2012). The "Miserable Minority" following mild traumatic brain injury: Who are they and do meta-analyses hide them? The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 26(2), 197-213. http://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2011.647085
71. Samuelson, K.W., Neylan, T.C., Metzler, T.J., Lenoci, M., Rothlind, J., Henn-Haase, C., Marmar, C.R. (2006). Neuropsychological functioning in posttraumatic stress disorder and alcohol abuse. Neuropsychology, 20(6), 716-726. http://doi. org/10.1037/0894-4105.20.6.716
72. Scherrer, J.F., Xian, H., Lyons, M.J., Goldberg, J., Eisen, S.A., True, W.R., Koenen, K.C. (2008). Posttraumatic stress disorder; combat exposure; and nicotine dependence, alcohol dependence, and major depression in male twins. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 49(3), 297-304. http://doi.org/10.1016/j. comppsych.2007.11.001
73. Schnittker, J. (2005). Cognitive abilities and self-rated health: Is there a relationship? Is it growing? Does it explain disparities? Social Science Research, 34(4), 821-842. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2005.01.003
74. Schroeder, R.W., Marshall, P.S. (2011). Evaluation of the appropriateness of multiple symptom validity indices in psychotic and non-psychotic psychiatric populations. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 25(3), 437-453. http://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2011.556668
75. Schuitevoerder, S., Rosen, J.W., Twamley, E.W., Ayers, C.R., Sones, H., Lohr, J.B., Thorp, S.R. (2013). A meta-analysis of cognitive functioning in older adults with PTSD. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 27(6), 550-558. http://doi.org/10.1016/j. janxdis.2013.01.001
76. Scott, J.C., Matt, G.E., Wrocklage, K.M., Crnich, C., Jordan, J., Southwick, S.M., Schweinsburg, B.C. (2015). A quantitative meta-analysis of neurocognitive functioning in posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychological Bulletin, 141(1), 105-140. http://doi.org/10.1037/a0038039
77. Scott, J.C., Woods, S.P., Matt, G.E., Meyer, R.A., Heaton, R.K., Atkinson, J.H., Grant, I. (2007). Neurocognitive effects of methamphetamine: A critical review and meta-analysis. Neuropsychology Review, 17(3), 275-297. http://doi.org/10.1007/s11065-007-9031-0.
78. Selim, A.J., Rogers, W., Fleishman, J.A., Qian, S.X., Fincke, B.G., Rothendler, J.A., Kazis, L.E. (2009). Updated U.S. population standard for the Veterans RAND 12-item Health Survey (VR-12). Quality of Life Research, 18(1), 43-52. http://doi.org/10.1007/s11136-008-9418-2
79. Shucard, J.L., McCabe, D.C., Szymanski, H. (2008). An event-related potential study of attention deficits in posttraumatic stress disorder during auditory and visual Go/NoGo continuous performance tasks. Biological Psychology, 79(2), 223-233. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2008.05.005
80. Tas, C., Brown, E., Cubukcuoglu, Z., Aydemir, O., Danaci, A.E., Brüne, M. (2013). Towards an integrative approach to understanding quality of life in schizophrenia: The role of neurocognition, social cognition, and psychopathology. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 54(3), 262-268. http://doi.org/10.1016/j. comppsych.2012.08.001
81. Tombaugh, T.N., Tombaugh, P.W. (1996). Test of Memory Malingering: TOMM. North Tonawanda, NY: Multi-Health Systems.
82. Twamley, E.W., Hami, S., Stein, M.B. (2004). Neuropsychological function in college students with and without posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychiatry Research, 126(3), 265-274. http://doi. org/10.1016/j.psychres.2004.01.008
83. Vasterling, J.J., Brailey, K. (2005). Neuropsychological findings in adults with PTSD. In J.J. Vasterling & C.R. Brewin (Eds.), Neuropsychology of PTSD: Biological, cognitive, and clinical perspectives (pp. 178-207). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
84. Vasterling, J.J., Brailey, K., Constans, J.I., Sutker, P.B. (1998). Attention and memory dysfunction in posttraumatic stress disorder. Neuropsychology, 12(1), 125-133.
85. Vasterling, J.J., Brailey, K., Proctor, S.P., Kane, R., Heeren, T., Franz, M. (2012). Neuropsychological outcomes of mild traumatic brain injury, post-traumatic stress disorder and depression in Iraq-deployed US Army soldiers. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 201(3), 186-192. http://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.111.096461
86. Vasterling, J.J., Duke, L.M., Brailey, K., Constans, J.I., Allain, A.N., Jr., Sutker, P.B. (2002). Attention, learning, and memory performances and intellectual resources in Vietnam veterans: PTSD and no disorder comparisons. Neuropsychology, 16(1), 5-14. http://doi.org/10.1037/0894-4105.16.1.5
87. Wechsler, D. (2001). Wechsler Test of Adult Reading: WTAR. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.
88. Wechsler, D. (2008). Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Fourth Edition (WAIS-IV). San Antonio, TX: NCS Pearson.
89. Wild, J., Gur, R.C. (2008). Verbal memory and treatment response in post-traumatic stress disorder. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 193(3), 254-255. http://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.107.045922
90. Wisdom, N.M., Pastorek, N.J., Miller, B.I., Booth, J.E., Romesser, J.M., Linck, J.F., Sim, A.H. (2014). PTSD and cognitive functioning: Importance of including performance validity testing. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 28(1), 128-145. http://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2013.863977
91. Woods, S.P., Conover, E., Weinborn, M., Rippeth, J.D., Brill, R.M., Heaton, R.K., HIV Neurobehavioral Research Center (HNRC) Group. (2003). Base rate of Hiscock Digit Memory Test failure in HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 17(3), 383-389. http://doi.org/10.1076/clin.17.3.383.18079
92. Woods, S.P., Scott, J.C., Fields, J.A., Poquette, A., Tröster, A.I. (2008). Executive dysfunction and neuropsychiatric symptoms predict lower health status in essential tremor. Cognitive and Behavioral Neurology, 21(1), 28-33. http://doi.org/10.1097/WNN.0b013e3181684414