Building a more competent security sector: The case of UNMIL and the Liberian National Police

International Peacekeeping

Volumn 23, Issue 1, 2016, Pages 158-191

  Karim, Sabrina ^a   Gorman, Ryan ^a,b  

^a EMORY UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b CENTER FOR STRATEGIC AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84958045296     PISSN: 13533312     EISSN: 1743906X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/13533312.2015.1115354     Document Type: Article

References (103)

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31. Subsequent Resolutions include 1820, 1888, 1889, 1960, 2106 and 2122; see Louise Olsson and Theodora-Ismene Gizelis (eds), Gender, Peace and Security: Implementing UNSCR 1325, Abingdon and New York: Routledge, 2015.
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33. See Geneva Centre for Democratic Control of Armed Forces (DCAF), 'Gender and Security Sector Reform: Examples from the Group', 2011 (at: www.dcaf.ch/ Publications/Gender-and-Security-Sector-Reform-Examples-from-the-Ground).
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36. This may raise an issue about endogeneity because the officers are evaluated on the dimensions that they identified as relevant. However, the officers that participated in the study were not aware that they were being tested in competencies. Only an UNMIL officer and a top LNP officer were aware of the activities. This means that the experiment was blind. Additionally, the selection of participants was random and they did not have prior knowledge of the content of the activities which removes concerns about biases.
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67. MarkMalan, 'Security Sector Reform in Liberia: Mixed Results from Humble Beginnings', Strategic Studies Institute, 2008 (at: http://www.strategicstudiesinstitute.army. mil/pubs/display.cfm?pubID=855).
68. Jonathan Friedman, 'Building Civilian Police Capacity: Post-Conflict Liberia, 2003-2011', Innovations for Successful Societies, Princeton University, 2011 (at: www.princeton.edu/successfulsocieties/content/data/policy_note/PN_id176/ Policy_Note_ID176.txt).
69. Abraham Kromah, A Comparative Analysis of the Liberian National Police Department (LNP) and the NYPD: The Effects of Corruption and Lessons for Transitional and Emerging Organziations, New York: John Jay College of Criminal Justice, 2011.
70. AbrahamKromah, The Study of the Behavior of the Liberian Police Force during the Americo-Liberian Administration, First Republic and Up to the Administration of the Second Republic [Google Books version], 2007 (at: http://tinyurl.com/lt7k5wa).
71. Jonathan Friedman, 'Building Civilian Police Capacity: Post-Conflict Liberia, 2003-2011', Innovations for Successful Societies, Princeton University, 2011 (at: www.princeton.edu/successfulsocieties/content/data/policy_note/PN_id176/ Policy_Note_ID176.txt).
72. MarkMalan, 'Security Sector Reform in Liberia: Mixed Results from Humble Beginnings', Strategic Studies Institute, 2008 (at: http://www.strategicstudiesinstitute.army. mil/pubs/display.cfm?pubID=855).
73. see also Richard Downie, 'Building Police Institutions in Fragile States Case Studies from Africa', Center for Strategic and International Studies, Jan. 2013 (at: www.csis. org/files/publication/130115_Downie_BuildPoliceInstitutions_web.pdf).
74. MarkMalan, 'Security Sector Reform in Liberia: Mixed Results from Humble Beginnings', Strategic Studies Institute, 2008 (at: http://www.strategicstudiesinstitute.army. mil/pubs/display.cfm?pubID=855).
75. IRIN, 'Despite Reforms, Corruption Rife among Liberian Police', 11 Oct. 2013 (at: www.irinnews.org/fr/report/98924/despite-reforms-corruption-rife-among-liberianpolice).
76. US Department of State, Bureau of International Narcotics and Law Enforcement, 'Public Notice-Request for Cooperative Agreement Proposals', 2011 (at: http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:cSy9fbVlQbwJ:apply 07.grants.gov/apply/opportunities/instructions/oppINL-11-CA-0009-AME-06302 011-cfda00.000-instructions.docx+&cd=6&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us).
77. US Department of State, Bureau of International Narcotics and Law Enforcement, Office of the Spokesperson, 'The Bureau of International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Sponsors the Liberia National Police Mobile Training Teams Project', 28 Jan. 2013 (at: http://www.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2013/01/203361.htm).
78. Jonathan Friedman, 'Building Civilian Police Capacity: Post-Conflict Liberia, 2003-2011', Innovations for Successful Societies, Princeton University, 2011 (at: www.princeton.edu/successfulsocieties/content/data/policy_note/PN_id176/ Policy_Note_ID176.txt).
79. Laura Bacon, 'Building an Inclusive, Responsive National Police Service: Gender Sensitive Reforms in Liberia 2005-2011', Innovations for Successful Societies, Princeton University, 2011 (at: http://www.princeton.edu/successfulsocieties/ content/focusareas/PL/policynotes/view.xml?id=191).
80. Gender-based violence, including sexual assault, has long been a problem in Liberia and the police have been criticized in the past for poor management of these cases. The LNP aimed to mitigate this problem by recruiting more women and training officers to respond more effectively to cases of sexual abuse and domestic violence.
81. Michael Brzoska, 'Introduction: Criteria for Evaluating Post-Conflict Reconstruction and Security Sector Reform in Peace Support Operations', International Peacekeeping, Vol.13, No.1, 2006, pp.1-13.
82. see also Richard Downie, 'Building Police Institutions in Fragile States Case Studies from Africa', Center for Strategic and International Studies, Jan. 2013 (at: www.csis. org/files/publication/130115_Downie_BuildPoliceInstitutions_web.pdf).
83. Human Rights Watch, 'Soldiers Who Rape, Commanders Who Condone: Sexual Violence and Military Reform in the Democratic Republic of Congo', 16 Jul. 2009 (at: http://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/drc0709web. pdf).
84. International Crisis Group, 'Liberia: Uneven Progress in Security Sector Reform', Africa Report No.148, 13 Jan. 2009 (at: http://www.crisisgroup.org/en/regions/ africa/west-africa/liberia/148-liberia-uneven-progress-in-security-sector-reform. aspx).
85. Jonathan Friedman, 'Building Civilian Police Capacity: Post-Conflict Liberia, 2003-2011', Innovations for Successful Societies, Princeton University, 2011 (at: www.princeton.edu/successfulsocieties/content/data/policy_note/PN_id176/ Policy_Note_ID176.txt).
86. Laura Bacon, 'Building an Inclusive, Responsive National Police Service: Gender Sensitive Reforms in Liberia 2005-2011', Innovations for Successful Societies, Princeton University, 2011 (at: http://www.princeton.edu/successfulsocieties/ content/focusareas/PL/policynotes/view.xml?id=191).
87. The lab-in-the-field experiments were conducted with Kyle Beardsley, Michael Gilligan and Robert Blair. They were done as a collaborative project to understand how gender integration affects group dynamics. The results of the study are a working paper, which can be requested from Sabrina Karim.
88. We had 33 all male groups, 29 groups of two women, 21 groups of four women and 19 groups of all women. In total, we surveyed 54 per cent of the manpower in Monrovia, and 92 per cent of LNP women in Monrovia and 42 per cent of LNP men in Monrovia.
89. The part of the study where we assessed risk was not funded by the Folke Bernadotte Academy.
90. For each individual, two enumerators recorded their participation level.
91. For example, we asked one basic question about cognition: 'You are participating in a race. You overtake the person in second place. What position are you in?' About 40 per cent of the officers got the answer correct and 60 per cent got the question wrong.
92. We created a score based on two questions about how well people think they did relative to other people, and four questions about their contribution to the group and their level of satisfaction in the group activities.
93. See Appendix 3 for details about this score.
94. See Appendix 2 for all tables.
95. We also measured the number of times people argued. The range of average argumentation is between 0-9.5.
96. This is true when all controls are held at the mean and for male officers.
97. Figure 2 displays the predicted probability without the control variables. Even accounting for the other indicators, the relationships are still statistically significant. See Appendix 2 for tables.
98. Richard Seklecki and Rebecca Paynich, 'A National Survey of Female Police Officers: An Overview of Findings', Police Practice and Research, Vol.8, No.1, 2007, pp.17-30.
99. See 'Women in peacekeeping', 23 Jul. 2014 (at: http://www.un.org/en/peace keeping/issues/women/womeninpk.shtml).
100. Richard Seklecki and Rebecca Paynich, 'A National Survey of Female Police Officers: An Overview of Findings', Police Practice and Research, Vol.8, No.1, 2007, pp.17-30.
101. Laura Bacon, 'Building an Inclusive, Responsive National Police Service: Gender Sensitive Reforms in Liberia 2005-2011', Innovations for Successful Societies, Princeton University, 2011 (at: http://www.princeton.edu/successfulsocieties/ content/focusareas/PL/policynotes/view.xml?id=191).
102. The Appendix 4 has a table of the distribution of men and women in each unit. There is large discrepancy between units, as some units have higher proportions of women (administration).
103. Just over 2.5 per cent have an education level of junior high school or less. This could be due to a programme initiated to recruit more women, which included recruiting women who had not completed a high school degree, and received training to make up for it (see UNMIL, 'Gender Mainstreaming in Peacekeeping Operations Liberia 2003-2009 Best Practices Report' (at: http://www.resdal.org/ facebook/UNMIL_Gender_Mainstreaming_in_PKO_in_Liberia-Best.pdf).