Perceptions of the police: Past findings, methodological issues, conceptual issues and policy implications

Policing

Volumn 25, Issue 3, 2002, Pages 543-580

  Brown, Ben ^a   Benedict, Wm Reed ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS AT BROWNSVILLE   (United States)

^b EASTERN ILLINOIS UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Attitudes; Perception; Police

Indexed keywords

EID: 3142711188     PISSN: 1363951X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1108/13639510210437032     Document Type: Review

References (201)

1. Albrecht, S.L. and Green, M. (1977), "Attitudes toward the police and the larger attitude complex: implications for police-community relationships", Criminology, Vol. 15, pp. 67-86.
2. Alemika, E.E.O. (1988), "Policing and perceptions of police in Nigeria", Police Studies, Vol. 11, pp. 161-76.
3. Apple, N. and O'Brien, D.J. (1983), "Neighborhood racial composition and residents' evaluation of police performance", Journal of Police Science and Administration, Vol. 11, pp. 76-84.
4. Bai, M. and Beals, G. (1999), "A mayor under siege", Newsweek, Vol. 133 No. 14, April 5, pp. 40-2.
5. Baseheart, J.R. and Cox, T.C. (1993), "Effects of police use of profanity on a receiver's perceptions of credibility", Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, Vol. 9, pp. 9-19.
6. Beck, K., Boni, N. and Packer, J. (1999), "The use of public attitude surveys: what can they tell police managers?", Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, Vol. 22, pp. 191-213.
7. Bellman, A. (1935), "A police service rating scale", Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, Vol. 26, pp. 74-114.
8. Benedict, W.R., Brown, B. and Bower, D.J. (2000), "Perceptions of the police and fear of crime in a rural setting: utility of a geographically focused survey for police services, planning, and assessment", Criminal Justice Policy Review, Vol. 11 No. 4, pp. 275-98.
9. Benedict, W.R., Bower, D.J., Brown, B. and Cunningham, R. (1999), "Small town surveys: bridging the gap between police and the community", Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, Vol. 15, pp. 144-54.
10. Benson, P.R. (1981), "Political alienation and public satisfaction with police services", Pacific Sociological Review, Vol. 24, pp. 45-64.
11. Block, R.L. (1970), "Support for civil liberties and support for the police", American Behavioral Scientist, Vol. 13, pp. 781-96.
12. Block, R.L. (1971), "Fear of crime and fear of the police", Social Problems, Vol. 19, pp. 91-101.
13. Boggs, S.L. and Galliher, J.F. (1975), "Evaluating the police: a comparison of black street and household respondents", Social Problems, Vol. 22, pp. 393-406.
14. Bordua, D.J. and Tifft, L.L. (1971), "Citizen interview, organizational feedback, and police-community relations decisions", Law and Society Review, Vol. 6, pp. 155-82.
15. Bouma, D.H. (1973), "Youth attitudes toward the police and law enforcement, " in Curran, J.T., Fowler, A. and Ward, R.H. (Eds), Police and Law Enforcement 1972, AMS Press, Inc., New York, NY, pp. 219-38.
16. Brandl, S. and Horvath, F. (1991), "Crime victim evaluation of police investigative performance", Journal of Criminal Justice, Vol. 19, pp. 293-305.
17. Brandl, S.G., Frank, J., Wooldredge, J. and Watkins, C. (1997), "On the measurement of public support for the police: a research note", Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, Vol. 20, pp. 473-80.
18. Brandl, S.G., Frank, J., Worden, R.E. and Bynum, T.S.. (1994), "Global and specific attitudes toward the police: disentangling the relationship", Justice Quarterly, Vol. 11, pp. 119-34.
19. Brann, J.E. and Chaiken, J.M. (1999), "Foreword", in Smith, S.K., Steadman, G.W., Minton, T.D. and Townsend, M. (Eds), Criminal Victimization and Perceptions of Community Safety in 12 Cities, 1998, US Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Assistance, Monograph NCJ 173940, Washington, DC, p. iii.
20. Breci, M.G. and Murphy, J.E. (1997), "Public perceptions regarding police response to domestic violence", Security Journal, Vol. 9, pp. 199-202.
21. Brown, B., Benedict, W.R. and Bower, D.J. (1998), "Public perceptions and police policy: applying perceptual research in the development of community-policing programs", Perceptual and Motor Skills, Vol. 87, pp. 827-35.
22. Brown, K. and Coulter, P.B. (1983), "Subjective and objective measures of police service delivery", Public Administration Review, Vol. 43, pp. 50-8.
23. Brunner, E.D. and Wayland, S. (1958), "Education and income", Journal of Educational Sociology, Vol. 32, pp. 21-7.
24. Bureau of Justice Assistance (1993), A Police Guide to Surveying Citizens and Their Environment, US Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Assistance, Monograph NCJ 143709, Washington, DC.
25. Cao, L. and Hou, C. (2001), "A comparison of confidence in the police in China and the United States", Journal of Criminal Justice, Vol. 29, pp. 87-99.
26. Cao, L. and Huang, B. (2000), "Determinants of citizen complaints against police abuse of power", Journal of Criminal Justice, Vol. 28, pp. 203-13.
27. Cao, L., Frank, J. and Cullen, F.T. (1996), "Race, community context, and confidence in police", American Journal of Police, Vol. 15, pp. 3-22.
28. Carlan, P.E. (1999), "Occupational outcomes of criminal justice graduates: is the Master's degree a wise investment?", Journal of Criminal Justice Education, Vol. 10, pp. 39-55.
29. Carlson, H.M. and Sutton, M.S. (1979), "Some factors in community evaluation of police street performance", American Journal of Community Psychology, Vol. 7, pp. 583-91.
30. Carlson, H.M. and Sutton, M.S. (1981), "A multi-method approach to community evaluation of police performance", Journal of Criminal Justice, Vol. 9, pp. 227-34.
31. Carte, G.E. (1973), "Changes in public attitudes toward the police: a comparison of 1938 and 1971 surveys", Journal of Police Science and Administration, Vol. 1, pp. 182-200.
32. Carter, D.L. (1983), "Hispanic interaction with the criminal justice system in Texas: experiences, attitudes, and perceptions", Journal of Criminal Justice, Vol. 11, pp. 213-27.
33. Carter, D.L. (1985), "Hispanic perception of police performance: an empirical assessment", Journal of Criminal Justice, Vol. 13, pp. 487-500.
34. Chackerian, R. (1974), "Police professionalism and citizen evaluation: a preliminary look", Public Administration Review, Vol. 34, pp. 141-8.
35. Chackerian, R. and Barrett, R.F. (1973), "Police professionalism and citizen evaluation", Urban Affairs Quarterly, Vol. 8, pp. 345-9.
36. Chandek, M.S. (1999), "Race, expectations and evaluations of police performance: an empirical assessment", Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, Vol. 22, pp. 675-95.
37. Chapman, A.W. (1956), "Attitudes toward legal authorities by juveniles", Sociology and Social Research, Vol. 40, pp. 170-5.
38. Chermak, S., McGarrell, E.F. and Weiss, A. (2001), "Citizens' perceptions of aggressive traffic enforcement strategies", Justice Quarterly, Vol. 18, pp. 365-91.
39. Cheurprakobkit, S. (2000), "Police-citizen contact and police performance: attitudinal differences between Hispanics and non-Hispanics", Journal of Criminal Justice, Vol. 28, pp. 325-36.
40. Cheurprakobkit, S. and Bartsch, R.A. (1999), "Police work and the police profession: assessing attitudes of city officials, Spanish-speaking Hispanics, and their English-speaking counterparts", Journal of Criminal Justice, Vol. 27, pp. 87-100.
41. Clark, J.P. and Wenninger, E.P. (1964), "The attitudes of juveniles toward the legal institution", Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police Science, Vol. 55, pp. 482-9.
42. Cordner, G.W. (1997), "Community policing: elements and effects", in Dunham, R.G. and Alpert, G.P. (Eds), Critical Issues in Policing: Contemporary Readings, 3rd ed., Waveland Press, Inc., Prospect Heights, IL, pp. 451-68.
43. Cordner, G.W., Marenin, O. and Murphy, J. (1986), "Police responsiveness to community norms", American Journal of Police, Vol. 15, pp. 83-107.
44. Correia, M.E., Reisig, M.D. and Lovrich, N.P. (1996), "Public perceptions of state police: an analysis of individual-level and contextual variables", Journal of Criminal Justice, Vol. 24, pp. 17-28.
45. Coupe, T. and Griffiths, M. (1999), "The influence of police actions on victim satisfaction in burglary investigation", International Journal of the Sociology of Law, Vol. 27, pp. 413-31.
46. Cox, S.M. and Fitzgerald, J.D. (1996), Police in Community Relations: Critical Issues, 3rd ed., Brown and Benchmark Publishers, Dubuque, IA.
47. Cox, T.C. and Falkenberg, S.D. (1987), "Adolescents' attitudes toward police: an emphasis on interactions between the delinquency measure of alcohol and marijuana, police contacts and attitudes", American Journal of Police, Vol. 6, pp. 45-62.
48. Cox, T.C. and White, M.F. (1988), "Traffic citations and student attitudes toward the police: an evaluation of selected interaction dynamics", Journal of Police Science and Administration, Vol. 16, pp. 105-21.
49. Cullen, F.T., Cao, L., Frank, J., Langworthy, R.H., Browning, S.L., Kopache, R. and Stevenson, T.J. (1996), "' Stop or I'll shoot': racial differences in support for police use of deadly force", American Behavioral Scientist, Vol. 39, pp. 449-60.
50. Davis, J.R. (1990), "A comparison of attitudes toward the New York City Police", Journal of Police Science and Administration, Vol. 17, pp. 233-43.
51. Dean, D. (1980), "Citizen ratings of the police: the difference contact makes", Law and Policy Quarterly, Vol. 2, pp. 445-71.
52. Decker, S.H. (1981), "Citizen attitudes toward the police: a review of past findings and suggestions for future policy", Journal of Police Science and Administration, Vol. 9, pp. 80-7.
53. Decker, S.H. (1985), "The police and the public: perceptions and policy recommendations", in Homant, R.J. and Kennedy, D.B. (Eds), Police and Law Enforcement, 1975-1981, Vol. 3, AMS Press, New York, NY, pp. 89-105.
54. Decker, S.H. and Smith, R.L. (1980), "Police minority recruitment: a note on its effectiveness in improving black evaluations of the police", Journal of Criminal Justice, Vol. 8, pp. 387-93.
55. Derbyshire, R.L. (1968), "Children's perceptions of the police: a comparative study of attitudes and attitude change", Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police Science, Vol. 59, pp. 183-90.
56. Diamond, M.J. and Lobitz, W.C. (1973), "When familiarity breeds respect: the effect of an experimental program on police and student attitudes toward each other", Journal of Social Issues, Vol. 29, pp. 95-109.
57. Duncan, O.D. and Hodge, R.W. (1963), "Education and occupational mobility: a regression analysis", American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 6, pp. 629-44.
58. Dunham, R.G. and Alpert, G.P. (1988), "Neighborhood differences in attitudes toward policing: evidence for a mixed-strategy model for policing in a multi-ethnic setting", Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, Vol. 79, pp. 504-21.
59. Erez, E. (1984), "Self-defined 'desert' and citizens' assessment of the police", Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, Vol. 75, pp. 1276-99.
60. Fennessy, E., Hamilton, T., Joscelyn, K. and Merritt, J. (1970), A Study of Hot Pursuit by the Police, US Department of Transportation, Washington, DC.
61. Finney, H.C. (1974). "Political dimensions of college impact on civil-libertarianism and the integration of political perspective: a longitudinal analysis", Sociology of Education, Vol. 47, pp. 214-50.
62. Fleek, T.A. and Newman, T.J. (1969), "The role of the police in modern society", Police, Vol. 13 No. 4, pp. 21-7.
63. Fogelson, R.M. (1968), "From resentment to confrontation: the police, negroes, and the outbreak of the nineteen-sixties riots", Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 12, pp. 261-74.
64. Frank, J., Brandl, S., Cullen, F.T. and Stichman, A. (1996), "Reassessing the impact of race on citizens' attitudes toward the police: a research note", Justice Quarterly, Vol. 13, pp. 321-34.
65. Frazier, M., Strickland, T. and Calhoun, J.F. (1986), "Changing public perceptions of officers by challenging irrational ideas", Campus Law Enforcement Journal, Vol. 16 No. 1, p. 41.
66. Furstenberg, F.J. and Wellford, C.F. (1973), "Calling the police: the evaluation of public service", Law and Society Review, Vol. 7, pp. 393-406.
67. Gamson, W.A. and McEvoy, J. (1970), "Police violence and its public support", Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences, Vol. 391, pp. 97-110.
68. Giordano, P.C. (1976), "The sense of injustice: an analysis of juveniles' reactions to the justice system", Criminology, Vol. 14, pp. 93-112.
69. Glenn, N.D. and Taylor, P.A. (1984), "Education and family income: a comparison of white married men and women in the USA", Social Forces, Vol. 63, pp. 169-83.
70. Gnagey, J. and Henson, R. (1995), "Community surveys help determine policing strategies", Police Chief, Vol. 62 No. 3, pp. 25-7.
71. Goggins, E.O., Newman, I., Waechter, D. and Williams, B.G. (1994), "Effectiveness of police in schools: perceptions of students, teachers, administrators, and police officers", Spectrum: Journal of School Research and Information, Vol. 12, pp. 16-22.
72. Gourley, G.D. (1954), "Police public relations", Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 291, pp. 135-42.
73. Greene, J.R. and Decker, S.H. (1989), "Policy and community perceptions of the community role in policing: the Philadelphia experience", Howard Journal of Criminal Justice, Vol. 28, pp. 105-23.
74. Griffiths, C.T. and Winfree, L.T. (1982), "Attitudes toward the police: a comparison of Canadian and American adolescents", International Journal of Comparative and Applied Criminal Justice, Vol. 6, pp. 127-41.
75. Hadar, I. and Snortum, J.R. (1975), "The eye of the beholder: differential perceptions of police by the police and by the public", Criminal Justice and Behavior, Vol. 2, pp. 37-54.
76. Hagan, J. and Albonetti, C. (1982), "Race, class, and the perception of criminal justice in America", American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 88, pp. 329-55.
77. Hahn, H. (1971), "Ghetto assessments of police protection and authority", Law and Society Review, Vol. 6, pp. 183-94.
78. Hayes, B.C. and Brewer, J.D. (1997), "Ethnic minority status and attitudes towards police powers: a comparative study of Great Britain, Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland", Ethnic and Racial Studies, Vol. 20, pp. 781-96.
79. Hesketh, B. (1992), "The police use of surveys: valuable tools or misused distractions?", Police Studies, Vol. 15, pp. 55-61.
80. Hindelang, M.J. (1974), "Public opinion regarding crime, criminal justice, and related topics", Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, Vol. 11, pp. 101-16.
81. Holmes, M.D. (1998), "Perceptions of abusive police practices in a US-Mexico border community", The Social Science Journal, Vol. 35, pp. 107-19.
82. Homant, R.J. and Kennedy, D.B. (1994), "Citizen preferences and perceptions concerning police pursuit policies", Journal of Criminal Justice, Vol. 22, pp. 425-35.
83. Homant, R. J., Kennedy, D.B. and Fleming, R.M. (1984), "The effect of victimization and the police response on citizens' attitudes toward the police", Journal of Police Science and Administration, Vol. 12, pp. 323-32.
84. Hopkins, N. (1994), "School pupils' perceptions of the police that visit the schools: not all police are 'pigs" ', Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology, Vol. 4, pp. 189-207.
85. Hopkins, N., Hewstone, M. and Hantzi, A. (1992), "Police-schools liaison and young people's image of the police: an intervention evaluation", British Journal of Psychology, Vol. 83, pp. 203-20.
86. Huang, W. and Vaughn, M. (1996), "Support and confidence: public attitudes toward the police", in Flanagan, T.J. and Longmire, D.R. (Eds), Americans View Crime and Justice: A National Public Opinion Survey, Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA, pp. 31-45.
87. Hurst, Y.G. and Frank, J. (2000), "How kids view cops: the nature of juvenile attitudes toward the police", Journal of Criminal Justice, Vol. 28, pp. 189-202.
88. Jacob, H. (1971), "Black and white perceptions of justice in the city", Law and Society Review, Vol. 6, pp. 69-89.
89. Jacoby, W. (1991), "Ideological identification and issue attitudes", American Journal of Political Science, Vol. 35, pp. 178-205.
90. Janeksela, G.M., Deming, R.R. and Nida, T.M. (1976), "Attitudes toward police", Police Law Quarterly, Vol. 5, pp. 14-30.
91. Jefferis, E.S., Kaminski, R.J., Holmes, S. and Hanley, D.E. (1997), "The effect of a videotaped arrest on public perceptions of police use of force", Journal of Criminal Justice, Vol. 25, pp. 381-95.
92. Jefferson, T. and Walker, M.A. (1993), "Attitudes toward the police of ethnic minorities in a provincial city", British Journal of Criminology, Vol. 33, pp. 251-66.
93. Jesilow, P. and Meyer, J.A. (2001), "The effect of police misconduct on public attitudes: a quasi-experiment", Journal of Crime and Justice, Vol. 24 No. 1, pp. 109-21.
94. Jesilow, P., Meyer, J.A. and Namazzi, N. (1995), "Public attitudes toward the police", American Journal of Police, Vol. 14, pp. 67-88.
95. John, C., Villaescusa, T., Toscko, L. and Powers, S. (1997), "Attitudes toward police: an evaluation of community perceptions of safety", Perceptual and Motor Skills, Vol. 84, p. 114.
96. Jonas, A.B.J. and Whitfield, E.A. (1986), "Postal survey of public satisfaction with police officers in New Zealand", Police Studies, Vol. 9, pp. 211-21.
97. Jones, M. (1999), "Religion, race, and public opinion about police officer gratuities", Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, Vol. 15, pp. 191-204.
98. Kaminski, R.J. and Jefferis, E.S. (1998), "The effect of a violent televised arrest on public perceptions of the police: a partial test of Easton's theoretical framework", Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, Vol. 21, pp. 683-706.
99. Klyman, F.I. and Kruckenberg, J. (1974), "A methodology for assessing citizen perceptions of the police", Journal of Criminal Justice, Vol. 2, pp. 219-33.
100. Koenig, D.J. (1980), "The effects of criminal victimization and judicial or police contacts on public attitudes toward local police", Journal of Criminal Justice, Vol. 8, pp. 243-9.
101. Koenig, E.J. (1978), "An overview of attitudes toward women in law enforcement", Public Administration Review, Vol. 38, pp. 267-75.
102. Kramer, M. (1997), "How cops go bad", Time, Vol. 150 No. 25, December 15, pp. 78-83.
103. Krause, M.S. (1975), "Schoolchildren's attitudes toward public authority figures", Adolescence, Vol. 10, pp. 111-22.
104. Kuchel, G.L. and Pattavina, A.P. (1969), "Juveniles look at their police", Police, Vol. 13 No. 4, pp. 25-7.
105. Kusow, A.M., Wilson, L.C., and Martin, D.E. (1997), "Determinants of citizen satisfaction with the police: the effects of residential location", Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategy & Management, Vol. 20, pp. 655-64.
106. Land, T. (1998), "Eastern Europe's police forces court public opinion", Contemporary Review, Vol. 273 No. 1595, pp. 295-8.
107. Langan, P.A., Greenfeld, L.A., Smith, S.K., Durose, M.R. and Levin, D.J. (2001), Contacts between Police and the Public: Findings from the 1999 National Survey, US Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics, Monograph NCJ 184957, Washington, DC.
108. Larsen, K.S. (1968), "Authoritarianism and attitudes toward the police", Psychological Reports, Vol. 3, pp. 349-50.
109. Lasley, J.R. (1994), "The impact of the Rodney King incident on citizen attitudes toward police", Policing and Society, Vol. 3, pp. 245-55.
110. Leger, K. (1997), "Public perceptions of female officers on patrol", American Journal of Criminal Justice, Vol. 21, pp. 231-49.
111. Leiber, M.J., Nalla, M.K. and Farnworth, M. (1998), "Explaining juveniles' attitudes toward the police", Justice Quarterly, Vol. 15, pp. 151-73.
112. Levin, J. and Thomas, A.R. (1997), "Experimentally manipulating race: perceptions of police brutality in an arrest: a research note", Justice Quarterly, Vol. 14, pp. 577-86.
113. Lumb, R.C. (1996), "Community attitudes regarding police responsibility for crime control", The Police Journal, Vol. 69, pp. 319-29.
114. McAneny, L. (1995 a), "Most Americans now say Fuhrman a racist", Gallup Poll Monthly, Vol. 360, pp. 23-5.
115. McAneny, L. (1995 b), "Racial divisions evident in ratings of police, lawyers", Gallup Poll Monthly, Vol. 362, pp. 28-32.
116. MacDonald, J.M. and Alpert, G.P. (1998), "Public attitudes toward police pursuit driving", Journal of Criminal Justice, Vol. 26, pp. 185-94.
117. McIntyre, J. (1967), "Public attitudes toward crime and law enforcement", Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 374, pp. 34-6.
118. McWhorter, D. (1999), "Killing by NY Police raises ghosts of past", USA Today, March 29, p. 17A.
119. Marenin, O. (1983), "Supporting the local police: the differential group basis of varieties of support", Police Studies, Vol. 6, pp. 50-6.
120. Marenin, O. (1989), "The utility of community needs surveys in community policing", Police Studies, Vol. 12, pp. 73-81.
121. Mastrofski, S. (1981), "Surveying clients to assess police performance", Evaluation Review, Vol. 5, pp. 397-408.
122. Mathews, T. (1992), "The siege of LA", Newsweek, Vol. 119 No. 19, May 11, pp. 30-8.
123. Maxfield, M.G. (1988), "The London Metropolitan Police and their clients: victim and suspect attitudes", Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, Vol. 25, pp. 188-206.
124. Mirande, A. (1980), "Fear of crime and fear of the police in a Chicano community", Sociology and Social Research, Vol. 64, pp. 528-41.
125. Murphy, D.W. and Worrall, J.L. (1999), "Residency requirements and public perceptions of the police in large municipalities", Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, Vol. 22, pp. 327-42.
126. Murty, K.S., Roebuck, J.B. and Armstrong, G.R. (1994), "The black community's reaction to the 1992 Los Angeles riot", Deviant Behavior, Vol. 15, pp. 85-104.
127. Murty, K.S., Roebuck, J.B. and Smith, J.D. (1990), "The image of the police in black Atlanta communities' ', Journal of Police Science and Administration, Vol. 17, pp. 250-7.
128. Mylonas, A.D. and Reckless, W.C. (1968), "Attitudes toward law enforcement in Greece and the United States", Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, Vol. 5, pp. 81-8.
129. Nelsen, E.A., Eisenberg, N. and Carroll, J.L. (1982), "The structure of adolescents' attitudes towards law and crime", The Journal of Genetic Psychology, Vol. 140, pp. 47-58.
130. Neuman, W. (1981), "Differentiation and integration: two dimensions of political thinking", American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 86, pp. 1236-68.
131. O'Brien, J.T. (1978), "Public attitudes toward the police", Journal of Police Science and Administration, Vol. 6, pp. 303-10.
132. Oettmeir, T.N. and Wycoff, M.A. (1998), "Personnel performance evaluations in the community-policing context", in Alpert, G.P. and Piquero, A. (Eds), Community Policing: Contemporary Readings, Waveland Press, Prospect Heights, IL, pp. 275-305.
133. Otto, P. (2000), "The importance of building strong media relations: they will tell the story with or without you", ACJS Today, Vol. 19 No. 1, pp. 8-9.
134. Overman, R. (1994), "The case for community policing", Police Chief, Vol. 61 No. 3, pp. 20-3.
135. Parker, K.D., Onyekwuluje, A.B. and Murty, K. (1995), "African-Americans' attitudes toward the local police: a multivariate analysis", Journal of Black Studies, Vol. 25, pp. 396-409.
136. Parratt, S.D. (1936), "A critique of the Bellman police service rating scale", Journal of the American Institute of Criminal Law and Criminology, Vol. 27, pp. 895-905.
137. Parratt, S.D. (1938), "A scale to measure effectiveness of police functioning", Journal of the American Institute of Criminal Law and Criminology, Vol. 28, pp. 739-56.
138. Parrish, P. (1993), "Police and the media", FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, Vol. 62 No. 9, pp. 24-5.
139. Peak, K., Bradshaw, R.V. and Glensor, R.W. (1992), "Improving citizen perceptions of the police: 'back to the basics' with a community policing strategy", Journal of Criminal Justice, Vol. 20, pp. 25-40.
140. Peek, C.W., Alston, J.P. and Lowe, G.D. (1978), "Comparative evaluation of the local police", Public Opinion Quarterly, Vol. 37, pp. 370-9.
141. Peek, C.W., Lowe, G.D. and Alston, J.P. (1981), "Race and attitudes toward the police: another look", Journal of Black Studies, Vol. 11, pp. 361-74.
142. Percy, S.L. (1980), "Response time and citizen evaluation of police", Journal of Police Science and Administration, Vol. 8, pp. 75-86.
143. Percy, S.L. (1986), "In defense of citizen evaluations as performance measures", Urban Affairs Quarterly, Vol. 22, pp. 66-83.
144. Pike, D.F. (1980), "Rage in Miami: a warning?" US News and World Reports, June 2, pp. 19-22.
145. Poister, T.H. and McDavid, J.C. (1978), "Victims' evaluation of police performance", Journal of Criminal Justice, Vol. 6, pp. 133-49.
146. Prenzler, T. and Mackay, P. (1995), "Police gratuities: what the public think", Criminal Justice Ethics, Vol. 14, pp. 15-25.
147. Priest, T.B. and Carter, D.B. (1999), "Evaluations of police performance in an African-American sample", Journal of Criminal Justice, Vol. 27, pp. 457-65.
148. Primeau, C.C., Helton, J.A., Baxter, J.C. and Rozelle, R.M. (1975), "An examination of the conception of the police officer held by several social groups", Journal of Police Science & Administration, Vol. 3, pp. 189-96.
149. Reisig, M.D. and Chandek, M.S. (2001), "The effects of expectancy disconfirmation on outcome satisfaction in police-citizen encounters", Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, Vol. 24, pp. 87-99.
150. Reisig, M.D. and Correia, M.E. (1997), "Public evaluations of police performance: an analysis across three levels of policing", Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, Vol. 20, pp. 311-25.
151. Reisig, M.D. and Giacomazzi, A.L. (1998), "Citizen perceptions of community policing: are attitudes toward police important?", Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, Vol. 21, pp. 547-61.
152. Reisig, M.D. and Parks, R.B. (2000), "Experience, quality of life, and neighborhood context: a hierarchical analysis of satisfaction with the police", Justice Quarterly, Vol. 17, pp. 607-29.
153. Riechers, L.M. and Roberg, R.R. (1990), "Community policing: a critical review of underlying assumptions", Journal of Police Science & Administration, Vol. 17, pp. 105-14.
154. Roberg, R.R. (1994), "Can today's police organizations effectively implement community policing?", in Rosenbaum, D.P. (Ed.), The Challenge of Community Policing: Testing the Promises, Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA, pp. 249-57.
155. Rusinko, W.T., Johnson, K.W., and Hornung, C.A. (1978), "The importance of police contact in the formulation of youths' attitudes toward the police", Journal of Criminal Justice, Vol. 6, pp. 53-67.
156. Sampson, R.J. and Bartusch, D.J. (1998), "Legal cynicism and (subcultural?) tolerance of deviance: the neighborhood context of racial differences", Law and Society Review, Vol. 32, pp. 777-804.
157. Scaglion, R. and Condon, R.G. (1980 a), "The structure of black and white attitudes toward police", Human Organization, Vol. 39, pp. 280-3.
158. Scaglion, R. and Condon, R.G. (1980 b), "Determinants of attitudes toward city police", Criminology, Vol. 17, pp. 485-94.
159. Shaw, C.R. and McKay, H.D. (1942), Juvenile Delinquency and Urban Areas, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL.
160. Shaw, G.M., Shapiro, R.Y., Lock, S. and Jacobs, L.R. (1998), "The polls: crime, the police, and civil liberties", Public Opinion Quarterly, Vol. 62, pp. 405-7.
161. Shipler, D.K. (1997), "Living under suspicion", New York Times, February 7, p. A33.
162. Sigelman, L., Welch, S., Bledsoe, T. and Combs, M. (1997), "Police brutality and public perceptions of racial discrimination: a tale of two beatings", Political Research Quarterly, Vol. 50, pp. 777-91.
163. Sigler, R.T. and Dees, T.M. (1988), "Public perception of petty corruption in law enforcement", Journal of Police Science and Administration, Vol. 16, pp. 14-20.
164. Singh, O.R. (1998), "People's perceptions of women police in Delhi", Social Welfare, Vol. 45, pp. 25-30.
165. Sissom, K. (1996), "Community-oriented policing means business", FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, Vol. 65 No. 12, pp. 10-14.
166. Skogan, W.G. (1975), "Public policy and public evaluations of criminal justice system performance", in Gardiner, J.A. and Mulkey, M.A. (Eds), Crime and Criminal Justice: Issues in Public Policy Analysis, D.C. Heath and Company, Lexington, MA, pp. 53-61.
167. Skogan, W.G. (1978), "Citizen satisfaction with police services: individual and contextual effects", Policy Studies Journal, Special Issue, pp. 469-79.
168. Skogan, W.G. (1996), "The police and public opinion in Britain", American Behavioral Scientist, Vol. 39, pp. 421-32.
169. Smith, D.A., Graham, N. and Adams, B. (1991), "Minorities and the police: attitudinal and behavioral questions", in Lynch, M.J. and Patterson, E.B. (Eds), Race and Criminal Justice, Harrow and Heston Publishers, Albany, NY, pp. 22-35.
170. Smith, D.J. (1991), "The origins of black hostility to the police", Policing and Society, Vol. 2, pp. 1-15.
171. Smith, P.E. and Hawkins, R.O. (1973), "Victimization, types of citizen-police contacts and attitudes toward the police", Law and Society Review, Vol. 8, pp. 135-52.
172. Smith, S.K., Steadman, G.W., Minton, T.D. and Townsend, M. (Eds) (1999), Criminal Victimization and Perceptions of Community Safety in 12 Cities, 1998, US Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Assistance, Monograph NCJ 173940, Washington, DC.
173. Song, J.H.L. (1992), "Attitudes of Chinese immigrants and Vietnamese refugees toward law enforcement in the United States", Justice Quarterly, Vol. 9, pp. 703-19.
174. Stephens, J. and Sinden, P.G. (2000), "Victims' voices: domestic assault victims' perceptions of police demeanor", Journal of Interpersonal Violence, Vol. 15, pp. 534-47.
175. Sullivan, P.S., Dunham, R.G. and Alpert, G.P. (1987), "Attitude structures of different ethnic and age groups concerning the police", Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, Vol. 78, pp. 177-93.
176. Taylor, T.J., Turner, K.B., Esbensen, F.A. and Winfree, L.T. (2001), "Coppin' an attitude: attitudinal differences among juveniles toward police", Journal of Criminal Justice, Vol. 29, pp. 295-305.
177. Thomas, C.W. and Hyman, J.M. (1977), "Perceptions of crime, fear of victimization, and public perceptions of police performance", Journal of Police Science and Administration, Vol. 5, pp. 305-17.
178. Thornton, L.M. (1975), "People and the police: an analysis of factors associated with police evaluation and support", Canadian Journal of Sociology, Vol. 1, pp. 325-42.
179. Thurman, Q.C. and Reisig, M.D. (1996), "Community-oriented research in an era of community policing", American Behavioral Scientist, Vol. 39, pp. 570-86.
180. Tuch, S.A. and Weitzer, R. (1997), "The polls: racial differences in attitudes toward the police", Public Opinion Quarterly, Vol. 61, pp. 642-64.
181. Venegas, A. and Kidd, V.V. (1994), "Public meetings provide community forum", Police Chief, Vol. 61 No. 10, pp. 85-91.
182. Vermunt, R., Blaauw, E. and Lind, E.A. (1998), "Fairness evaluations of encounters with police officers and correctional officers", Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 28, pp. 1107-24.
183. Waddington, P.A.J. and Braddock, Q. (1991), "Guardians or bullies? Perceptions of the police amongst adolescent black, white, and Asian boys' ', Policing and Society, Vol. 2, pp. 31-45.
184. Walker, D., Richardson, R.J., Denyer, T., Williams, O. and McGaughey, S. (1972), "Contact and support: an empirical assessment of public attitudes toward the police and the courts", North Carolina Law Review, Vol. 51, pp. 43-79.
185. Walker, S. (1997), "Complaints against the police: a focus group study of citizen perceptions, goals, and expectations", Criminal Justice Review, Vol. 22, pp. 207-26.
186. Webb, V.J. and Katz, C.M. (1997), "Citizen ratings of the importance of community policing activities", Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, Vol. 20, pp. 7-23.
187. Webb, V.J. and Marshall, C.E. (1995), "The relative importance of race and ethnicity on citizen attitudes toward the police", American Journal of Police, Vol. 14, pp. 45-66.
188. Weil, F.D. (1995), "The variable effects of education on liberal attitudes: a comparative-historical analysis of anti-Semitism, using public opinion survey data", American Sociological Review, Vol. 50, pp. 458-74.
189. Weisel, D. (1999), Conducting Community Surveys: A Practical Guide for Law Enforcement, US Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics, Monograph NCJ 178246, Washington, DC.
190. Weitzer, R. (1999), "Citizens' perceptions of police misconduct: race and neighborhood context", Justice Quarterly, Vol. 16, pp. 819-46.
191. Weitzer, R. (2000 a), "White, black, or blue cops? Race and citizen assessments of police officers", Journal of Criminal Justice, Vol. 28, pp. 313-24.
192. Weitzer, R. (2000 b), "Racialized policing: residents' perceptions in three neighborhoods' ', Law and Society Review, Vol. 34, pp. 129-55.
193. Weitzer, R. and Tuch, S.A. (1999), "Race, class, and perceptions of discrimination by the police", Crime and Delinquency, Vol. 45, pp. 494-507.
194. White, M.F. and Menke, B.A. (1978), "A critical analysis of surveys on public opinions toward police agencies", Journal of Police Science and Administration, Vol. 6, pp. 204-18.
195. White, M.F. and Menke, B.A. (1982), "On assessing the mood of the public towards the police: some conceptual issues", Journal of Criminal Justice, Vol. 10, pp. 211-30.
196. Wirths, C.G. (1958), "The development of attitudes toward law enforcement", Police, Vol. 3 No. 1, pp. 50-2.
197. Worrall, J.L. (1999), "Public perceptions of police efficacy and image: the 'fuzziness' of support for the police", American Journal of Criminal Justice, Vol. 24, pp. 47-66.
198. Yagil, D. (1998), "I'm OK - you're not OK: drivers' attitudes toward police officers enforcing traffic laws", Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, Vol. 21, pp. 339-53.
199. Zamble, E. and Annesley, P. (1987), "Some determinants of public attitudes toward the police", Journal of Police Science and Administration, Vol. 15, pp. 285-90.
200. Zeitz, L. (1965), "Survey of negro attitudes toward the law", Rutgers Law Review, Vol. 19, pp. 288-316.
201. Zevitz, R.G. and Rettammel, R.J. (1990), "Elderly attitudes about police services", American Journal of Police, Vol. 9, pp. 25-39.