5.16 - Renewable Fuels: An Automotive Perspective

Comprehensive Renewable Energy

Volumn , Issue , 2012, Pages 305-342

  Pearson, R J ^a   Turner, J W G ^a  

^a Lotus Engineering   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Biodiesel; Biofuels; Carbon dioxide; Electrofuels; Ethanol; Flex fuel vehicle; Internal combustion engine; Methanol; Renewable energy; Renewable fuel

Indexed keywords

EID: 84957742460     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-08-087872-0.00522-9     Document Type: Chapter

References (181)

1. D. Sperling and D. Gordon (2009) Two Billion Cars. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press 978-0-19-537664-7
2. S.C. Davis, S.W. Diegel and R.G. Boundy (2009) Transportation Energy Data Book: Edition 28. Tennessee, USA: Center for Transportation Analysis, Energy and Transportation Science Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory Prepared for the Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, US Department of Energy ORNL-6984
3. (2007) Climate change 2007: Mitigation of climate change. In: Metz B, Davidson OR, Bosch PR (eds.) Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK; New York: Cambridge University Press.
4. F. Sissine (2007) Energy independence and security act of 2007: A summary of major provisions. CRS Report for Congress, Oorder Code RL34294, 21 December. Washington DC: Congressional Research Service
5. www.jama-english.jp (accessed August 2008) Reducing CO2 emissions in the global road transport sector. Tokyo, Japan: Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association, Inc.
6. The next people’s car. Forbes Magazine 16 April 2007.
7. C. Jones (2008) Biofuels and vehicle performance. SAE BioFuels: Specification and Performance Symposium Paris, France, 7-9 July
8. COM (2006) 845, Communication of the European Commission to the Council and the European Parliament: Biofuels Progress Report. Commission of European Communities, Brussels, 10th January 2007.
9. Department for Bussiness, Enterprise and Regulatory Reform (BERR), Department of Transport (2008) Investigation into the scope for the transport sector to switch to electric vehicles and plug-in hybrid vehicles. http://www.bis.gov.uk/files/file48653.pdf (accessed 15 December 2011) UK, October 2008. BERR & DfT
10. E.R. Hitchin and C.H. Pout (2002) The carbon intensity of electricity: How many kgC per kWhe? Building Service Engineering Research and Technology 23(4), 215-222.
11. Pout C (2009) Revised emissions factors for the national calculation methodologies. Technical Papers Supporting SAP 2009, STP 09/CO201, March. Watford, UK: BRE.
12. R.W. McCarthy and C. Yang (2010) Determining marginal electricity for near-term plug-in and fuel cell vehicle demands in California: Impacts on vehicle greenhouse gas emissions. Journal of Power Sources 195(7), 2099-2109. 10.1016/j.jpowersour. 2009.10.024
13. R.D. Rodgers and G.A. Voth (2007) Ionic liquids. Accounts of Chemical Research 40 1077-1078.
14. N. Jackson (2006) Low carbon vehicle strategies: Options and potential benefits. Cost-Effective Low Carbon Engines Conference Institution of Mechanical Engineers, London, UK, 6-7 November
15. U. Eberle (2006) GM’s research strategy: Towards a hydrogen-based transportation system. FuncHy Workshop Geesthacht Research Centre, Geesthacht, Germany, 20-22 September
16. http://ies.jrc.ec.europa.eu/WTW (accessed May 2006) Well-to-wheels analysis of future automotive fuels and powertrains in the European context. Well-to-tank Report, Version 2b, EUCAR, CONCAWE, and the Joint Research Centre of the European Commission Directorate-General
17. U. Bossel (2006) Does a hydrogen economy make sense? Proceedings of IEEE 84(10), 1826-1837.
18. U. Bossel, B. Eliasson and G. Taylor (2003) The future of the hydrogen economy: Bright or bleak? Proceedings of European Fuel Cell Forum www.efcf.com/reports/E08.pdf (accessed 15 December 2011) With revised foreword 26 February 2005
19. U. Eberle, G. Arnold and R. von Helmolt (2006) Hydrogen storage in metal-hydrogen systems and their derivatives. Journal of Power Sources 154 456-460.
20. Casten S, Teagan P, and Stobart R (2000) Fuels for fuel cell-powered vehicles. SAE Paper No. 2000-01-0001. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers.
21. R. von Helmolt and U. Eberle (2007) Fuel cell vehicles: Status 2007. Journal of Power Sources 165 833-843.
22. http://hydrogendoedev.nrel.gov/pdfs/45457.pdf (accessed 15 December 2011) Fuel cell system cost for trnasportation - 2008 cost estimate. NREL/BK-6 A1-45457, May 2009. US Department of Commerce National Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA, USA
23. Cracknell RF, Alcock JL, Rowson JJ, et al. (2002) Safety considerations in retailing hydrogen. SAE Paper No. 2002-01-1928. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers.
24. M. Mintz, S. Folga, J. Molburg and J. Gillette (2002) Cost of some hydrogen fuel infrastructure options. Argonne National Laboratory Transportation Technology R&D Center, Transportation Research Board, 16 January
25. www.e85refueling.com (accessed 5 February 2010)
26. Laws and Regulations, CAFE - Fuel economy, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration http://www.nhtsa.gov/staticfiles/rulemaking/pdf/cafe/CAFE-GHG_MY_2012-2106_Final_Rule_FR.pdf (accessed 15 December 2011)
27. http://ies.jrc.ec.europa.eu/WTW (accessed May 2006) Well-to-wheels analysis of future automotive fuels and powertrains in the European context. Well-to-tank Report, Version 2b, WTT Appendix 2: Description and detailed energy and GHG balance of individual pathways, EUCAR, CONCAWE, and the Joint Research Centre of the European Commission Directorate-General
28. http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L2009:140:0088:0113:EN:PDF (accessed 15 December 2011) Directive 2009/30/ec of the European Parliament (2009) Official Journal of the European Union, 5th June
29. M. Piraccini (2008) Marketing perspectives for biofuel vehicles. International Conference on Automotive Biofuels IQPC, Berlin, Germany, 9-12 September
30. The US Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007. Public Law 110-140. 110th Congress, DOCID: f:publ140. 110, 2007. Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service.
31. Saito K, Kobayashi S, and Tanaka S (2008) Storage stability of FAME blended diesel fuels. SAE Paper No. 2008-01-2805. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers.
32. McCormick RL, Alleman TL, Waynick JA, et al. (2006) Stability of biodiesel and biodiesel blends: Interim report. Technical Report NREL/TP-540-39721, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, April 2006. Washington DC, USA.
33. Miyata I, Takei Y, Tsurutani K, and Okada M (2004) Effects of bio-fuels on vehicle performance - Degradation mechanism analysis of bio-fuels. SAE Paper No. 2004-01-3031. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers.
34. Ogawa T, Kajiya S, Kosaka S, et al. (2008) Analysis of oxidative deterioration of biodiesel fuel. SAE Paper No. 2008-01-2502. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers.
35. Caprotti R, Breakspear A, Klaua T, et al. (2007) RME behaviour in current and future diesel fuel FIEs. SAE Paper No. 2007-01-3982. SAE Paper No. 2007-01-3982. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers.
36. Hawthorne M, Roos JW, and Openshaw MJ (2008) Use of fuel additives to maintain modern diesel engine performance with severe test conditions. SAE Paper No. 2008-01-1806. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers.
37. Thornton MJ (2009) Impacts of biodiesel fuel blends oil dilution on light-duty diesel engine operation. SAE Paper No. 2009-01-1790. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers.
38. Richards P, Ried J, Tok L-H, and MacMillan I (2007) The emerging market for biodiesel and the role of fuel additives. SAE Paper No. 2007-01-2033 (JSAE Paper No. 20077232). Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers.
39. R.F. Probstein and R.E. Hicks (2006) Synthetic Fuels. Mineola, NY, USA: Dover Publications 978-0486449777
40. Global watch mission report: Second generation transport biofuels - A mission to the Netherlands, Germany and Finland. London, UK: UK Government Department of Trade and Industry, 2006.
41. Sustainable Biofuels: Prospects and Challenges. The Royal Society, 2008. ISBN: 978 0 85403 662 2.
42. M. Specht, U. Zuberbuhler and A. Bandi (2005) Why biofuels? - An introduction into the topic. RENEW - 1st European Summer School on Renewable Motor Fuels Uwelt-Campus-Birkenfeld, 29-31 August
43. A. Bandi and M. Specht (2006) Renewable carbon-based transportation fuels. L. Bornstein (Eds) Energy Technologies, Subvolume C: Renewable Energy, VIII/3C Berlin, Germany: Springer 978-3-540-42962-3 441-482.
44. P. Biedermann, T. Grube and B. Hohlein (2006) Methanol as an energy carrier. Schrifen des Forschungszentrums Julich Reihe Energietechnik/Energy Technology vol. 55 978-3-89336-446-6 Forschungszentrum Julich GmbH. Julich, Germany
45. M. Specht, A. Bandi, F. Baumgart, et al. (1999) Synthesis of methanol from biomass/CO2 resources. B. Eliasson, P.W.F. Riener, A. Wokaun (Eds) Greenhouse Gas Control Technologies Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Pergamon
46. E. Dekker (2008) Bio-methanol, the versatile biofuel. CMAI World Methanol Conference Lisbon, Portugal, 8-10 December
47. A.M. Lippert and G. Smyth (2009) Global energy systems in transportation: Next steps in energy diversity for transport. 30th International Vienna Motor Symposium Vienna, Austria, 7-8 May
48. G. Clark (2008) Coskata unveils ethanol technology and strategic partnership. Biofuel Review www.biofuelreview.com/content/view/1406/ 14 January
49. White TL (1907) Alcohol as a fuel for the automotive motor. SAE Paper No. 070002. Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, PA, USA.
50. J.K. Paul (Ed.) (1978) Methanol technology and application in motor fuels Park Ridge, NJ, USA: Noyes Data Corporation 0-8155-07 19-4 Chemical Technology Review No. 114, Energy Technology Review No. 31
51. Hagen DL (1977) Methanol as a fuel: A review with bibliography. SAE Paper No. 770792. Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, PA, USA.
52. Black F (1991) An overview of the technical implications of methanol and ethanol as highway motor vehicle fuels. SAE Paper No. 912413. Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, PA, USA.
53. Brinkman ND, Gallopoulos NE, and Jackson MW (1975) Exhaust emissions, fuel economy, and driveability of vehicles fuelled with alcohol-gasoline blends. SAE Paper No. 750120. Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, PA, USA.
54. Brinkman ND (1981) Ethanol fuel: A single-cylinder engine study of efficiency and exhaust emissions. SAE Paper No. 810345 and SAE Transactions. vol. 90, sec. 2, pp. 1410-1424.
55. Koenig A, Lee W, and Bernhardt W (1976) Technical and economical aspects of methanol as an automotive fuel. SAE Paper No. 760545. Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, PA, USA.
56. Nakata K, Utsumi S, Ota A, et al. (2006) The effect of ethanol fuel on a spark ignition engine. SAE Paper No. 2006-01-3380. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers.
57. Kar K, Last T, Haywood R, and Raine R (2008) Measurement of vapor pressures and enthalpies of vaporization of gasoline and ethanol blends and their effects on mixture preparation in an SI engine. SAE Paper No. 2008-01-0317. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers.
58. Marriott CD, Wiles MA, Gwidt JM, and Parrish SE (2008) Development of a naturally aspirated spark ignition direct-injection flex-fuel engine. SAE Paper No. 2008-01-0319. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers.
59. Takagi Y, Nakajima Y, Muranaka S, and Ohkawa K (1983) Characteristics of fuel economy and output in methanol fueled turbocharged SI engine. SAE Paper No. 830123. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers.
60. Turner JWG, Pearson RJ, Holland B, and Peck R (2007) Alcohol-based fuels in high performance engines. SAE Paper No. 2007-01-0056. SAE Fuels and Emissions Conference. Cape Town, South Africa, 23-25 January.
61. Turner JWG, Peck A, and Pearson RJ (2007) Flex-fuel vehicle development to promote synthetic alcohols as the basis for a potential negative-CO2 energy economy. SAE Paper No. 2007-01-3618. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers.
62. K. Bergström, S.-A. Melin and C.C. Jones (2007) The new ECOTEC turbo BioPower engine from GM powertrain: Utilizing the power of nature’s resources. 28th International Vienna Motor Symposium Vienna, Austria, 26-27 April
63. K. Bergström, H. Nordin, A. Konigstein, et al. (2007) ABC, alcohol based combustion engines: Challenges and opportunities. 16th Aachener Kolloquium Fahrzeug-und Motorentechnik Aachen, Germany, 8-10 October
64. Kapus PE, Fuerhapter A, Fuchs H, and Fraidl GK (2007) Ethanol direct injection on turbocharged SI engines: Potential and challenges. SAE Paper No. 2007-01-1408. Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, PA, USA.
65. Brewster S (2007) Initial development of a turbo-charged direct injection E100 combustion system. SAE Paper No. 2007-01-3625. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers.
66. R. Weinowski, A. Sehr, O. Rutten, et al. (2008) Impact of the ethanol fuel content on operation parameters of passenger car gasoline engines. 17th Aachener Kolloquium Fahrzeug-und Motorentechnik Aachen, Germany, 6-8 October
67. J.S. Malcolm, P.G. Aleiferis, A.R. Todd, et al. (2007) A study of alcohol blended fuels in a new optical spark-ignition engine. Institution of Mechanical Engineers Performance, Fuel Economy and Emissions Conference London, UK, 11-12 December
68. Most WJ and Longwell JP (1975) Single-cylinder engine evaluation of methanol: Improved energy economy and reduced NOx. SAE Paper No. 750119. Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, PA, USA.
69. Pannone GM and Johnson RT (1985) Methanol as a fuel for a lean turbocharged spark ignition engine. SAE Paper No. 890435. Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, PA, USA.
70. Brusstar M, Stuhldreher M, Swain D, and Pidgeon W (2002) High efficiency and low emissions from a port-injected engine with neat alcohol fuels. SAE Paper No. 2002-01-2743. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers.
71. Bruetsch RI and Hellman KH (1992) Evaluation of a passenger car equipped with a direct injection neat methanol engine. SAE Paper No. 920196. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers.
72. Brusstar MJ and Gray CL (2007) High efficiency with future alcohol fuels in a stoichiometric medium duty spark ignition engine. SAE Paper No. 2007-01-3993. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers.
73. B.E. Poling, J.M. Prausnitz and J.P. O’Connell (2001) The Properties of Gases and Liquids. 5th edn. New York: McGraw-Hill 0-07-011682-2
74. Furey RL (1985) Volatility characteristics of gasoline-alcohol and gasoline-ether blends. SAE Paper No. 852116. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers.
75. Siewart RM and Groff EG (1987) Unassisted cold starts to -29°C and steady-state tests of a direct-injection, stratified-charge (DISC) engine operated on neat alcohols. SAE Paper No. 872066. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers.
76. Y. Yacoub, R. Bata and M. Gautam (1998) The performance and emission characteristics of C1-C5 alcohol-gasoline blends with matched oxygen content in a single-cylinder spark ignition engine. Journal of Automotive Engineering 212(Pt. A), 363-379. Proceedings of Institution of Mechanical Engineers
77. M. Gautam and D.W. Martin (2000) Combustion characteristics of higher-alcohol/gasoline blends. Journal of Automotive Engineering 214(Pt. A), 497-511. Proceedings of Institution of Mechanical Engineers
78. Chevron Philips Chemical Company (2008) http://www.cpchem.com/bl/specchem/en-us/Pages/UTG96unleadedtestgasoline.aspx (accessed 15 December 2011) Sales Specification UTG 96
79. Cairns A, Stansfield P, Fraser N, et al. (2009) A study of gasoline-alcohol blended fuels in an advanced turbocharged DISI engine. SAE 2009 World Congress. Detroit, MI, USA, 20-23 April. SAE Paper No. 2009-0-0038.
80. Popuri SSS and Bata RM (1993) A performance study of iso-butanol-, methanol-, and ethanol-gasoline blends using a single cylinder engine. SAE Paper No. 932953 and SAE Transactions. vol. 102, sec. 2, pp. 576-595. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers.
81. Jackson MD, Unnasch S, Sullivan C, and Renner RA (1985) Transit bus operation with methanol fuel. SAE Paper No. 850216. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers.
82. Toepel RR, Bennethum JE, and Heruth RE (1983) Development of detroit diesel allison 6V-92TA methanol fueled coach engine. SAE Paper No. 831744. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers.
83. Urban CM, Timbario TJ, and Bechtold RL (1989) Performance and emissions of a DDC 8V-71 engine fueled with cetane improved methanol. SAE Paper No. 892064. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers.
84. Wuebben P, Unnasch S, Pellegrin V, et al. (1990) Transit bus operation with a DDC 6V-92TAC engine operating on ignition-improved methanol. SAE Paper No. 902161. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers.
85. Hikino K and Suzuki T (1989) Development of methanol engine with autoignition for low NO x and better fuel economy. SAE International Off-Highway & Powerplant Congress and Exposition. Milwaukee, WI, 11-14 September. SAE Paper No. 891842.
86. P.A. Machiele (1990) A health and safety assessment of methanol as an alternative fuel. W.L. Kohl (Eds) Methanol as An Alternative Fuel Choice: An Assessment Washington, DC: Johns Hopkins Foreign Policy Institute 094170064X 217-239.
87. M. Brusstar, D. Haugen and C. Gray (2008) Environmental and human ealth considerations for methanol as a transportation fuel. 17th International Symposium on Alternative Fuels Taiyuan, China, 14 October
88. Machiele PA (1987) Flammability and toxicity tradeoffs with methanol fuels. SAE Paper No. 872064 and SAE 1987 Transactions, vol. 96, sec. 7, pp. 344-356.
89. Malcolm Pirnie, Inc. (1998) Evaluation of the fate and transport of methanol in the environment. http://www.methanol.org/Environment/Resources/Environment/MP-Methanol-Fate.aspx (accessed 15 December 2011)
90. L. Fishbein and C.J. Henry (1990) Health effects of methanol: An overview. W.L. Kohl (Eds) Methanol as An Alternative Fuel Choice: An Assessment Washington, DC: Johns Hopkins Foreign Policy Institute 094170064X 241-249.
91. Malcolm Pirnie, Inc. (1999) Evaluation of the fate and transport of methanol in the environment. http://www.methanol.org/Environment/Resources/Environment/MP-Methanol-Fate.aspx (accessed 15 December 2011)
92. http://www-clinpharm.medschl.cam.ac.uk/pages/teaching/topics/poison/poison9.html (accessed 15 April 2010) Methanol Toxicology, University of Cambridge
93. R.S. Gable (2004) Comparison of acute lethal toxicity of commonly abused psychoactive substances. Addiction 99 686-696.
94. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denatonium (accessed 15 December 2011) Denatonium. Wikipedia article
95. Menrad H, Bernhardt W, and Decker G (1988) Methanol vehicles of Volkswagen - A contribution to better air quality. SAE Paper No. 881196 and SAE 1988 Transactions, vol. 97, sec. 3, pp. 373-384. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers.
96. T. Wagner and M.L. Wyszyński (1996) Aldehydes and ketones in engine exhaust emissions: A review. Journal of Automotive Engineering 210(Pt. D), 109-122. Proceedings of Institution Mechanical Engineers
97. Nichols RJ, Clinton EL, King ET, et al. (1988) A view of flexible fuel vehicle aldehyde emissions. SAE Paper No. 881200 and SAE 1988 Transactions. vol. 97, sec. 3, pp. 422-429. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers.
98. West BH, López AJ, Theiss TJ, et al. (2007) Fuel economy and emissions of the ethanol-optimized Saab 9-5Biopower. SAE Powertrain & Fluid Systems Conference and Exhibition, Chicago, IL, USA, October, SAE Paper No. 2007-01-3994.
99. J. Gingrich, I. Khalek, T. Alger and B. Mangold (2009) Consideration of emissions standards for a dilute spark-ignited engine operating on gasoline, butanol, and E85. SIA International Conference: The Spark-Ignition Engine of the Future Strasbourg, France, 2-3 December
100. R.J. Pearson, J.W.G. Turner and A.J. Peck (2009) Gasoline-ethanol-methanol tri-fuel vehicle development and its role in expediting sustainable organic fuels for transport. Institution of Mechanical Engineers Conference: Low Carbon Vehicles London, UK, 20-21 May
101. Machiele PA (1990) Summary of the fire safety impacts of methanol as a transportation fuel. SAE Paper No. 901113. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers.
102. Environmental Protection Agency (1994) Office of mobile sources, methanol fuels and fire safety, fact sheet OMS-8/EPA 400-F-92-010. http://www.epa.gov/oms/consumer/08-fire.pdf (accessed August 1994)
103. Bardon MF, Rao VK, and Battista V (1989) Volatility and flammability of methanol/gasoline blends. SAE Paper No. 892062 and SAE 1989 Transactions, vol. 98, sec. 4, pp. 803-809. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers.
104. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methanol_fuel (accessed 15 December 2011) Methanol fuel. Wikipedia article
105. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MTBE (accessed 15 December 2011) Methyl tert-butyl ether. Wikipedia
106. P.F. Ward and J.M. Teague (1996) Fifteen years of fuel methanol distribution. 11th International Symposium on Alcohol Fuels Sun City, South Africa, 14-17 April
107. R. Hammerschlag (2006) Ethanol’s energy return on investment: A survey of the literature 1990-present. Environmental Science & Technology 40(6), 1744-1750.
108. http://webarchive.nationalachives.gov.uk/20110131070443/ http://www.renewablefuelsagency.gov.uk/sites/renewablefuelsagency.gov.uk/files/_documents/Report_of_the_Gallagher_review.pdf (accessed15 December 2011) The Gallagher review of the indirect effects of biofuels production, Renewable Fuels Agency, St-Leonards-on-Sea, UK, July 2008
109. http://www.cbd.int/doc/biofuel/wbgu-bioenergy-SDM-en-20090603.pdf (accessed 15 December 2011) World in transition: Future bioenergy and sustainable land use: Summary for policy makers, WBGU, October 2008. ISBN: 978-3-936191-24-0
110. Woods J and Bauen A Technology status review and carbon abatement potential of renewable transport fuels (RTF) in the UK. DTI; AEAT. B/U2/00785/REP URN 03/982:1-150. London: Department of Trade and Industry.
111. J. Fargione, J. Hill, D. Tilman, et al. (2008) Land clearing and the biofuel carbon debt. Science Express 319 1235-1238.
112. T. Searchinger, R. Heimlich, R.A. Houghton, et al. (2008) Use of US croplands for biofuels increases greenhouse gases through emissions from land-use change. Science Express 319 1238-1240.
113. G.A. Olah, A. Goeppert and G.K.S. Prakash (2009) Beyond Oil and Gas: The Methanol Economy. 2nd edn. Weinheim, Germany: Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA 98-3-527-32422-4
114. M. Steinberg (1977) Synthetic carbonaceous fuels and feedstocks from oxides of carbon and nuclear power. 12th Intersociety Energy Conversion Engineering Conference Washington, DC, USA, 28 August-2 September
115. S. Stucki, A. Schuler and M. Constantinescu (1995) Coupled CO2 recovery from the atmosphere and water electrolysis: Feasibility of a new process for hydrogen storage. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 20(8), 653-663.
116. M. Specht, F. Staiss, A. Bandi and Weimer (1998) Comparison of the renewable transport fuels, liquid hydrogen and methanol, with gasoline: Energetic and economic aspects. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 23(5), 387-396.
117. Pearson RJ and Turner JWG (2007) Exploitation of energy resources and future automotive fuels. SAE Fuels and Emissions Conference, Cape Town, South Africa, January 2007. SAE Paper No. 2007-01-0034.
118. F.S. Zeman and D.W. Keith (2008) Carbon neutral hydrocarbons. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A 366 3901-3918.
119. G. Olah, A. Goeppert and G.K.S. Prakash (2009) Chemical recycling of carbon dioxide to methanol and dimethyl ether: From greenhouse gas to renewable, environmentally carbon neutral fuels and synthetic hydrocarbons. Journal of Organic Chemistry 74(2), 487-498.
120. Thambimuthu K, Soltanieh M, and Abanades JC (2005) Capture of CO2, in IPCC special report on carbon dioxide capture and storage, prepared by working group III of the intergovernmental panel on climate change. Metz B, Davidson O, de Conink H, et al. (eds.) Cambridge, UK; New York: Cambridge University Press.
121. N.A. Spector and B.F. Dodge (1946) Removal of carbon dioxide from atmospheric air. Transactions of American Institute of Chemical Engineers 42 827-848.
122. Lackner K, Ziock H-J, and Grimes P (1999) Carbon dioxide extraction from air: Is it an option? Proceedings of the 24th International Conference on Coal Utilization and Fuel Systems, Clearwater, Florida, USA, March 8-11.
123. K.S. Lackner, H.-J. Ziock and P. Grimes (1999) The case for carbon dioxide extraction from air. Source Book 57 6-10.
124. Zeman FS (2003) An investigation into the feasibility of capturing carbon dioxide directly from the atmosphere. Second Annual Conference on Carbon Sequestration, Paper No. 235. 5-8 May. Alexandria, VA, USA.
125. F.S. Zeman and K.S. Lackner (2004) Capturing carbon dioxide directly from the atmosphere. World Resource Review 16(2), 157-172.
126. Stolaroff JK (2006) Capturing CO2 from Ambient Air: A Feasibility Assessment. PhD Thesis, Carnegie Mellon University.
127. D. Keith, M. Ha-Duong and K. Stolaroff (2006) Climate strategy with CO2 capture from the air. Climate Change 74 17-45.
128. F. Zeman (2007) Energy and material balance of CO2 capture from ambient air. Environmental Science and Technology 41 7558-7563.
129. J.K. Stolaroff, D.W. Keith and G.V. Lowry (2008) Carbon dioxide capture from atmospheric air using sodium hydroxide spray. Environmental Science and Technology 42 2728-2735.
130. F. Zeman (2008) Experimental results for capturing CO2 from the atmosphere. AIChE Journal 54 1396-1399.
131. K. Littau (2008) An ‘atmospherically healthy’ recipe for carbon-neutral fuels: A synthetic fuel made from sunlight, CO2, and water. CTSI Clean Technology & Sustainable Industries Conference & Trade Show Boston, MA, USA, 1-5 June
132. M.D. Eisaman, D.E. Schwartz, S. Amic, et al. (2009) Energy-efficient electrochemical CO2 capture from the atmosphere. Technical Proceedings of the 2009 Clean Technology Conference and Trade Show. Houston, TX, USA. May 3-7
133. Littau K (2010) System and Method for Recovery of CO2 by Aqueous Carbonate Flue Gas Capture and High Efficiency Bipolar Membrane Electrodialysis. Patent application number: 20100059377, 03/11/2010.
134. J. Winnick, R.D. Marshall and F.H. Schubert (1974) An electrochemical device for carbon dioxide concentration. I. System design and performance. Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Process Design and Development 13 59-63.
135. C.H. Lin and J. Winnick (1974) An electrochemical device for carbon dioxide concentration. II. Steady-state analysis: CO2 transfer. Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Process Design and Development 13 63-70.
136. C.H. Lin, M.L. Heinemann and R.M. Angus (1974) An electrochemical device for carbon dioxide concentration. III. Steady-state analysis: Energy and water transfer. Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Process Design and Development 13 261-265.
137. O.E. Abdel-Salam and J. Winnick (1976) Simulation of an electrochemical carbon dioxide concentrator. AIChE Journal 22 1042-1050.
138. Koszenski EP, Heppner DB, and Bunnell CT (1986) Electrochemical carbon dioxide concentrator subsystem development, NASA-CR-177411. Moffett Field, CA: National Aeronautical and Space Administration.
139. Powell FT (1989) Refurbishment of one-person regenerative air revitalization system, NASA-CR-183757. Moffett Field, CA: National Aeronautical and Space Administration.
140. S.Q. Xiao and K. Li (1997) On the use of an electrochemical membrane for removal of CO2 from a breathing gas mixture. Transactions Institution of Chemical Engineers 75 438-446.
141. D. Keith (2008) CO2 capture from air. MIT Carbon Sequestration Forum Cambridge, MA, USA, 16 September
142. K.S. Lackner (2008) Options for capturing carbon dioxide from the air. 2nd US-China Symposium on CO2 Emissions Control Science and Technology Hangzhou, China, 28-30 May 2008
143. V. Nikulshina, D. Hirsch, M. Mazzotti and A. Steinfeld (2006) CO2 capture from air and co-production of H2 via the Ca(OH)2-CaCO3 cycle using concentrated solar power-thermodynamic analysis. Energy 31 1379-1389.
144. V. Nikulshina, M.E. Galvez and A. Steinfeld (2007) Kinetic analysis of the carbonation reactions for the capture of CO2 from air via the Ca(OH)2-CaCO3-CaO solar thermochemical cycle. Chemical Engineering Journal 129 75-83.
145. V. Nikulshina, N. Ayesa, M.E. Galvez and A. Steinfeld (2008) Feasibility of Na-based thermochemical cycles for the capture of CO2 from air: Thermodynamic and thermogravimetric analyses. Chemical Engineering Journal 140 62-70.
146. K. Greenwood and M. Pearce (1953) The removal of carbon dioxide from atmospheric air by scrubbing with caustic soda in packed towers. Transactions Institution of Chemical Engineers 31 201-207.
147. P.J. Hoftyzer and D.W. van Krevelen (1954) Applicability of the results of small-scale experiments to the design of technical apparatus for gas absorption. Transactions Institution of Chemical Engineers 32 S60-S67. Proceedings of the Symposium on Gas Absorption
148. Pearson RJ, Turner JWG, Eisaman MD, and Littau KA (2009) Extending the supply of alcohol fuels for energy security and carbon reduction. SAE Powertrains, Fuels, and Lubricants Conference, San Antonio, TX, 2-4 November 2009, SAE Paper No. 2009-01-2764.
149. R.J. Pearson, J.W.G. Turner, M.D. Eisaman, et al. (2009) Sustainable organic fuels for transport. SIA International Conference: The Spark-Ignition Engine of the Future, Strasbourg, France, 2-3 December
150. M. Mahmoudkhani, K.R. Heidel, J.C. Ferreira, et al. (2009) Low energy packed tower and caustic recovery for direct capture of CO2 from air. Energy Procedia 1 1535-1542.
151. M. Specht, A. Bandi, M. Elser, F. Staiss (1998) Comparison of CO2 sources for the synthesis of renewable methanol. T. Inui, M. Anpo, K. Izui, et al., (Eds) Advances in Chemical Conversion for Mitigating Carbon Dioxide, Studies in Surface Science vol. 114 Elsevier Science, BV 363-367.
152. S.H. Jensen, P.H. Larsen and M. Mogensen (2007) Hydrogen and synthetic fuel production from renewable energy sources. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 32 3253-3257.
153. R.J. Nichols (2003) The methanol story: A sustainable fuel for the future. Journal of Scientific & Industrial Research 62 97-105.
154. Turner JWG, Peck R, and Pearson RJ (2007) Development of a high performance sports car for operation on a high-alcohol blend fuel. JSAE Annual Congress, Pacifico Yokohama, Japan, 23-25 May, JSAE Paper No. 20075038.
155. http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/dnav/pet/tbldefs/pet_pnp_inpt3_tbldef2.asp (accessed 15 December 2011) US Department of Energy, Washington D.C. USA
156. Martin FJ and Kubic WL (2007) Green freedom: A concept for producing carbon-neutral synthetic fuels and chemicals, Los Alamos National Laboratory Report No.LA-UR-07-7897. Moffett Field, CA: National Aeronautical and Space Administration.
157. C. Aldewereld, B. Dautzenberg, M. Guldemond and J. Wijers (2006) Back from the future: The petrochemical industry in the Rhine-Scheldt delta in 2030. Chemagine April
158. http://www.mitsuichem.com.techno/lab_06.htm (accessed 15 December 2011) Mitsui Chemicals Inc.
159. http://www.carbonrecycling.is/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=13&Itemid=26&lang=en (accessed 15 December 2011) Carbon Recycling International
160. International Energy Annual (2006) Energy information administration. www.eia.doe.gov/iea/elect.html (accessed 12 August 2008)
161. X. Lu, M.B. McElroy and Kiviluoma (2009) Global potential for wind-generated electricity. www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.0904101106 (accessed 15 December 2011)
162. M. Pehnt (2002) Life cycle assessment of fuel cells in mobile and stationary applications. Institut fur Technische Thermodynamik Deutsches Zentrum fur Luft- und Raumfahrt (DLR). http://www.ifeu.de/energie/pdf/dissertation_pehnt.pdf (accessed May 2002) ISBN: 3-18-347606-1
163. Y. Kudoh, K. Nansai, Y. Kondo and K. Tahara (2007) Life cycle CO2 emissions of FCEV, BEV and GV in actual use. 23rd International Battery, Hybrid, and Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exposition Anaheim, CA, 2-5 December
164. G. Dolan (2005) Methanol transportation fuels: A look back and a look forward. International Symposium on Alcohol Fuels San Diego, CA, 27 September
165. G.A. McCoy, J. Kerstetter, J.K. Lyons and P. Downey (1993) Alcohol-fueled vehicles: An alternative fuels vehicle, emissions, and refueling infrastructure technology assessment. Washington State Department of Ecology and the Department of Transportation, WSEO-93-125 June. Olympia, WA: DOE Scientific and Technical Information
166. Cowart JS, Boruta WE, Dalton JD, et al. (1995) Powertrain development of the 1996 Ford flexible fuel Taurus. Alternative Fuels Conference and Exposition, San Diego, CA, 6-8 December, SAE Paper No. 952751.
167. Giroldo MB, Werninghaus E, Coelho E, and Makant W (2005) Development of 1.6 l flex fuel engine for Brazilian market. SAE Paper No. 2005-01-4130. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers.
168. Nakajima S, Saiki R, and Goryozono Y (2007) Development of an engine for flexible fuel vehicles (FFV). SAE Paper No. 2007-01-3616. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers.
169. M. Nilsson (2007) The new ECOTEC turbo BioPower engine from GM Powertrain. Institution of Mechanical Engineers Seminar: Biofuels for Future Transport and Mobility Hethel, Norwich, UK, 20 September
170. www.sekab.com (accessed 17 March 2008) Ethanol also for lorries, SEKAB press information
171. J.R. Moreira, S.T. Coelho, S.M.S.G. Velazquez, et al. (2008) BEST project - Contribution of ethanol usage in public urban transport. www.aea.org.br/twiki/pub/AEA/PAPERS/PAP0018-17.09-13h30-AnditrioIPE.pdf accessed November 2008
172. www.best-europe.org/Pages/ContentPage.aspx%3Fid=488 (accessed December 2008) Bioethanol for Sustainable Transport (2008) World’s first ethanol powered diesel car
173. G. Dolan (2008) http://www.setamericafree.org/Dolan041608.pdf (accessed 15 December 2011) Methanol transportation fuels: From U.S. to China, IAGS Briefing, U.S. House of Representatives, 16 April
174. M. Sutton (2008) China: New methanol capacity, new applications, new technology, new methanol world order. CMAI World Methanol Conference Lisbon, Portugal, 8-10 December
175. W. Li, L. Zhong and K. Xie (2008) The development of methanol industry and methanol fuel in China. 6th Annual Methanol Forum Dubai, 3-5 November
176. R. Stone (1999) Introduction to Internal Combustion Engines. London, UK: MacMillan Press Ltd. 0-333-74013-0
177. J.B. Heywood (1989) Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals. Maidenhead, UK: McGraw-Hill Education Europe 0071004998 ISBN13: 9780071004992
178. A. Bandi and M. Specht (2006) Renewable carbon-based transportation fuels. ‘Landolt-Bornstein’, Energy Technologies, Subvolume C: Renewable Energy, VIII/3C Berlin, Germany: Springer 978-3-540-42962-3 441-482.
179. G.A. Olah, A. Goeppert and G.K.S. Prakash (2009) Beyond Oil and Gas: The Methanol Economy. 2nd edn. Weinheim, Germany: Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA 98-3-527-32422-4
180. W.L. Kohl (Ed.) (1990) Methanol as an Alternative Fuel Choice: An Assessment Washington, DC: Johns Hopkins Foreign Policy Institute 094170064X
181. D. Roddy (2009) Biofuels: Environmental friend or foe? Energy 162 121-130. Proceeding Institution of Civil Engineers