Metrological challenges for measurements of key climatological observables. Part 4: Atmospheric relative humidity

Metrologia

Volumn 53, Issue 1, 2015, Pages R40-R59

  Lovell Smith, J W ^a   Feistel, R ^b   Harvey, A H ^c   Hellmuth, O ^d   Bell, S A ^e   Heinonen, M ^f   Cooper, J R ^g  

^a CALLAGHAN INNOVATION   (New Zealand)

^b LEIBNIZ INSTITUTE FOR BALTIC SEA RESEARCH   (Germany)

^c NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF STANDARDS AND TECHNOLOGY   (United States)

^d LEIBNIZ INSTITUTE FOR TROPOSPHERIC RESEARCH   (Germany)

^e NATIONAL PHYSICAL LABORATORY   (United Kingdom)

^f VTT TECHNICAL RESEARCH CENTRE OF FINLAND   (Finland)

^g QUEEN MARY UNIVERSITY OF LONDON   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

BIPM; climate; definitions; IAPWS; meteorology; metrology; relative humidity

Indexed keywords

HUMIDITY CONTROL; MEASUREMENTS; METEOROLOGY; PHASE INTERFACES; UNITS OF MEASUREMENT;

BIPM; CLIMATE; DEFINITIONS; IAPWS; INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION; INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS; MEASUREMENT PRACTICES; METROLOGICAL PROBLEMS;

ATMOSPHERIC HUMIDITY;

EID: 84957583354     PISSN: 00261394     EISSN: 16817575     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1088/0026-1394/53/1/R40     Document Type: Review

References (238)

1. Abbot C G and Fowle F E Jr 1908 Income and outgo of heat from the Earth, and the dependence of its temperature thereon Ann. Astrophys. Obs. 2 (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution) 159-76
2. Albrecht F 1940 Untersuchungen über den Wärmehaushalt der Erdoberfläche in verschiedenen Klimagebieten (Berlin: Julius Springer)
3. Allen M R and Ingram W J 2002 Constraints on future changes in climate and the hydrologic cycle Nature 419 224-32
4. Antikainen V, Paukkunen A and Jauhiainen H 2002 Measurement accuracy and repeatability of Vaisala RS90 radiosonde Vaisala News 159 11-13
5. Arderon W 1746 Extract of a letter from Mr William Arderon F.R.S. to Mr Henry Baker, F.R.S. with the description of an improved hygroscope Phil. Trans. R. Soc. 44 95-6
6. ASHRAE 1994 Standard 41.6-1994 Method for Measurement of Moist Air Properties.
7. ASTM 2014 D1356-14: Standard Terminology Relating to Sampling and Analysis of Atmospheres (West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International)
8. Baumgartner A and Reichel E 1975 The World Water Balance (München: R Oldenbourg Verlag)
9. BIPM 2006 The International System of Units (SI), Organisation Intergouvernementale de la Convention du Mètre 8th edn (Sevres: Bureau International des Poids et Mesures) www.bipm.org/en/si/si-brochure/
10. BIPM, IEC, IFCC, ILAC, ISO, IUPAC, IUPAP and OIML 2008 Evaluation of Measurement Data - Supplement 1 to the 'Guide to the Expression of Uncertainty in Measurement' - Propagation of distributions using a Monte Carlo method Joint Committee for Guides in Metrology JCGM 101 www.bipm.org/utils/common/documents/jcgm/JCGM-101-2008-E.pdf
11. Bintanja R and Selten F M 2014 Future increases in Arctic precipitation linked to local evaporation and sea-ice retreat Nature 509 479-82
12. Björklund S and Wadsö L 2011 A calorimetric method to determine water activity Rev. Sci. Instrum. 82 114903
13. Blandamer M J, Engberts J B F N, Gleeson P T and Reis J C R 2005 Activity of water in aqueous systems; a frequently neglected property Chem. Soc. Rev. 34 440-58
14. Böse N and Mitter H 2004 Calculation and measurement of humidity at temperatures higher than 100 °C Proc. TEMPMEKO 2004 (Croatia: Cavtat-Dubrovnik) pp 689-93
15. Bony S et al 2015 Clouds, circulation and climate sensitivity Nature Geosci. 8 261-8
16. Brasseur G P and Solomon S 2005 Aeronomy of the Middle Atmosphere: Chemistry and Physics of the Stratosphere and Mesosphere (Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer)
17. Brewer A W 1949 Evidence for a world circulation provided by the measurements of helium and water vapour distribution in the stratosphere Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 75 351-63
18. Brewster P (ed) 1832 Hygrometry. The American Edition of the New Edinburgh Encyclopaedia (Philadelphia, PA: Joseph and Edward Parker)
19. BS 1339-1 2002 Humidity Terms, Definitions and Formulae ISBN: 0 580 38475 6
20. Chahine M T 1992 The hydrological cycle and its influence on climate Nature 359 373-80
21. Chen X and Tung K-K 2014 Varying planetary heat sink led to global-warming slowdown and acceleration Science 345 897-903
22. Choosri T, Koglbauer G and Wendland M 2009 A new method for the measurement of the water activity or relative humidity by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy J. Chem. Eng. Data 54 1179-82
23. Clement A and DiNezio P 2014 The tropical Pacific Ocean - back in the driver's seat? Science 343 976-8
24. Coates A G (ed) 1997 Central America. A Natural and Cultural History (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press)
25. Coumou D, Lehmann J and Beckmann J 2015 The weakening summer circulation in the Northern Hemisphere mid-latitudes Science 348 324-7
26. Cowtan K and Way R G 2014 Coverage bias in the HadCRUT4 temperature series and its impact on recent temperature trends Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 140 1935-44
27. Crook N A 1996 Sensitivity of moist convection forced by boundary layer processes to low-level thermodynamic fields Mon. Weather Rev. 124 1767-85
28. Curry J 2014 Climate science: uncertain temperature trend Nat. Geosci. 7 83-4
29. Dai A 2006 Recent climatology, variability, and trends in global surface humidity J. Clim. 19 3589-605
30. Dai A, Karl T R, Sun B and Trenberth K E 2006 Recent trends in cloudiness over the United States: a tale of monitoring inadequacies Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 87 597-606
31. Danielsen E F 1982 A dehydration mechanism for the stratosphere Geophys. Res. Lett. 9 605-8
32. de Groot S R and Mazur P 1962 Non-equilibrium Thermodynamics (Amsterdam/New York: North Holland/Dover)
33. de Luc J A 1792 On evaporation Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. 82 400-24
34. Dessler A E 2010 A determination of the cloud feedback from climate variations over the past decade Science 330 1523-7
35. Dessler A E, Weinstock E M, Hintsa E J, Anderson J G, Webster C R, May R D, Elkins J W and Dutton G S 1994 An examination of the total hydrogen budget of the lower stratosphere Geophys. Res. Lett. 21 2563-6
36. Dessler A E, Zhang Z and Yang P 2008 Water-vapor climate feedback inferred from climate fluctuations, 2003-2008 Geophys. Res. Lett. 35 L20704
37. Dethof A, O'Neill A, Slingo J M and Smit H G J 1999 A mechanism for moistening the lower stratosphere involving the Asian summer monsoon Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 125 1079-106
38. Dickson J, Camões M F, Spitzer P, Fisicaro P, Stoica D, Pawlowicz R and Feistel R 2016 Metrological challenges for measurements of key climatological observables. Part 3: seawater pH Metrologia 53 R26-R39
39. Dobson G M B 1956 Origin and distribution of polyatomic molecules in the atmosphere Proc. R. Soc. A 236 187-93
40. Durack P J and Wijffels S E 2010 Fifty-year trends in global ocean salinities and their relationship to broad-scale warming J. Clim. 23 4342-62
41. Durack P J, Wijffels S E and Boyer T P 2013 Long-term salinity changes and implications for the global water cycle Ocean Circulation and Climate. A 21st Century Perspective ed G Siedler et al (Amsterdam: Elsevier) pp 727-57
42. Durack P J, Wijffels S E and Matear R J 2012 Ocean salinities reveal strong global water cycle intensification during 1950 to 2000 Science 336 455-8
43. DWD 2012 Geschichte des Observatoriums Hohenpeissenberg www.dwd.de/DE/forschung/atmosphaerenbeob/zusammensetzung-atmosphaere/hohenpeissenberg/download/historie-pdf.html February 2012
44. Ellis W 1878 Note on the mean relative humidity at the royal observatory, Greenwich Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 4 194-98
45. Emden R 1913 Über Strahlungsgleichgewicht und atmosphärische Strahlung. Ein Beitrag zur Theorie der oberen Inversion. Sitzungsberichte der mathematisch-physikalischen Klasse der Königlich Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu München pp 55-142 Jahrgang 1913
46. Emery W J, Talley L D and Pickard G L 2006 Descriptive Physical Oceanography (Amsterdam: Elsevier)
47. Erikson T A 1965 Forced vaporization of water Humidity and Moisture, Vol. III, Fundamentals and Standards ed A Wexler and W A Wildhack (New York: Reinhold Publishing) pp 351-54
48. Everett C, Blasi D E and Roberts S G 2015 Climate, vocal folds, and tonal languages: Connecting the physiological and geographic dots Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 112 1322-7
49. Falkenhagen H, Ebeling W and Hertz H G 1971 Theorie der Elektrolyte (Leipzig: S. Hirzel Verlag)
50. Farman J C, Gardiner B G and Shanklin J D 1985 Large losses of total ozone in Antarctica reveal seasonal ClOx/NOx interaction Nature 315 207-10
51. Fasullo J T and Trenberth K E 2012 A less cloudy future: the role of subtropical subsidence in climate sensitivity Science 338 792-4
52. Feistel R 2011a Radiative entropy balance and vertical stability of a gray atmosphere Eur. Phys. J. B 82 197-206
53. Feistel R 2011b Stochastic ensembles of thermodynamic potentials Accreditation Qual. Assur. 16 225-35
54. Feistel R 2012 TEOS-10: a new international oceanographic standard for seawater, ice, fluid water, and humid air Int. J. Thermophys. 33 1335-51
55. Feistel R 2013 Water, steam and climate Proc. 16th Int. Conf. on the Properties of Water and Steam (Greenwich, UK, 1-5 September 2013) doi:10.13140/2.1.3855.9043
56. Feistel R and Ebeling W 2011 Physics of Self-Organization and Evolution (Weinheim: Wiley-VCH)
57. Feistel R, Lovell-Smith J W and Hellmuth O 2015a Virial approximation of the TEOS-10 equation for the fugacity of water in humid air Int. J. Thermophys. 36 44-68
58. Feistel R, Lovell-Smith J W and Hellmuth O 2015b Virial approximation of the TEOS-10 equation for the fugacity of water in humid air Int. J. Thermophys. 36 204 (erratum)
59. Feistel R et al 2016 Metrological challenges for measurements of key climatological observables: oceanic salinity and pH, and atmospheric humidity. Part 1: overview Metrologia 53 R1-R11
60. Feistel R, Wright D G, Jackett D R, Miyagawa K, Reissmann J H, Wagner W, Overhoff U, Guder C, Feistel A and Marion G M 2010a Numerical implementation and oceanographic application of the thermodynamic potentials of liquid water, water vapour, ice, seawater and humid air - part 1: background and equations Ocean Sci. 6 633-77
61. Feistel R, Wright D G, Kretzschmar H-J, Hagen E, Herrmann S and Span R 2010b Thermodynamic properties of sea air Ocean Sci. 6 91-141
62. Forbes J and Mahlmann W 1836 Abriss einer Geschichte der neueren Fortschritte und des gegenwärtigen Zustandes der Meteorologie (Berlin: C.G. Lüderitz)
63. Gatley D P 2013 Understanding Psychrometrics 3rd edn (Atlanta, GA: The American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.)
64. Gavroglu K and Simões A 2012 From physical chemistry to quantum chemistry: how chemists dealt with mathematics HYLE - Int. J. Phil. Chem. 18 45-69 (www.hyle.org/journal/issues/18-1/gavroglu-simoes.pdf)
65. Gilbert L W 1803 Einige Bemerkungen zu Dalton's Untersuchungen über die Verdünstung Ann. Phys. 15 144-68
66. Gill A E 1982 Atmosphere Ocean Dynamics (San Diego, CA: Academic)
67. Gimeno L 2013 Grand challenges in atmospheric science Front. Earth Sci. 1 1-5
68. Glansdorff P and Prigogine I 1971 Thermodynamic Theory of Structure, Stability and Fluctuations (New York: Wiley-Interscience)
69. Goff J A 1949 Final Report of the Working Subcommittee of the International Joint Committee on Psychrometric Data Am. Soc. Mech. Eng. Trans. 71 903-13
70. Goff J A 1960 There should be thermodynamic consistency in the construction and use of psychrometric charts ASHRAE J. 2 70-5
71. Goff J A and Gratch S 1945 Thermodynamic properties of moist air Am. Soc. Heat. Vent. Eng. Trans. 51 125-64
72. Greenspan L 1977 Humidity fixed points of binary saturated aqueous solutions J. Res. Natl. Bureau Stand. A 81 89-96
73. Greenwald T J and Stephens G L 1995 Satellite Microwave Sensing of Oceanic Cloud Liquid Water: Application to the Earth Radiation Budget and Climate. Atmospheric Science Paper No. 572, Department of Atmospheric Science, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO
74. Guyot A 1859 Tables, meteorological and physical prepared for the Smithsonian Institution 3rd edn (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution)
75. Hamer W J and Wu Y-C 1972 Osmotic coefficients and mean activity coefficients of uni-univalent electrolytes in water at 25 °C J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data 1 1047-99
76. Hansen J, Sato M, Ruedy R, Lo K, Lea D W and Medina-Elizade M 2006 Global temperature change Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 103 14288-93
77. Hansen J E and Takahashi T (ed) 1984 Climate processes and climate sensitivity Geophysical Monograph Series vol 29 (Washington, DC: American Geophysical Union)
78. Harrison L P 1965 Humidity and Moisture, Volume 3 - Fundamentals and Standards ed A Wexler (New York: Reinhold) pp 3-256
79. Hasegawa S and Little J W 1977 The NBS Two-Pressure Humidity Generator, Mark 2. J. Res. Natl. Bureau Stand. A 81 81-8
80. Haug G H, Ganopolski A, Sigman D M, Rosell-Mele A, Swann G E A, Tiedemann R, Jaccard S L, Bollmann J, Maslin M A, Leng M J and Eglinton G 2005 North Pacific seasonality and the glaciation of North America 2.7 million years ago Nature 433 821-5
81. Haug G H and Tiedemann R 1998 Effect of the formation of the Isthmus of Panama on Atlantic Ocean thermohaline circulation Nature 393 673-6
82. Heinonen M 2002 A comparison of humidity standards at seven European national standards laboratories Metrologia 39 303-8
83. Held I M and Shell K M 2012 Using relative humidity as a state variable in climate feedback analysis J. Clim. 25 2578-82
84. Herrmann S, Kretzschmar H-J and and Gatley D P 2009 Thermodynamic properties of real moist air, dry air, steam, water, and ice ASHRAE RP-1485 (Atlanta, GA: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers Inc.)
85. Hintsa E J, Weinstock E M, Anderson J G, May R D and Hurst D F 1999 On the accuracy of in situ water vapor measurements in the troposphere and lower stratosphere with the Harvard Lyman-α hygrometer J. Geophys. Res. 104 8183-9
86. Hintsa E J, Weinstock E M, Dessler A E, Anderson J G, Loewenstein M and Podolske J R 1994 SPADE H2O measurements and the seasonal cycle of stratospheric water vapor Geophys. Res. Lett. 21 2559-62
87. Hocke K, Martin L and Kämpfer N 2013 Survey of intercomparisons of water vapour measurements Monitoring Atmospheric Water Vapour ed N Kämpfer (Berlin: Springer) pp 243-88
88. Holland R G and Stöhr G 2011 Geschichte der Hygrometer. Eine Zeitreise durch die Jahrhunderte. (Riedlingen: Schirmerdruck)
89. Hurst D F et al 1999 Closure of the total hydrogen budget of the northern extratropical lower stratosphere J. Geophys. Res. 104 8191-200
90. Hyland R W 1975 A correlation for the second interaction virial coefficients and enhancement factors for moist air J. Res. Natl. Bureau Stand. A 79 551-60
91. IAPWS 1992 Revised Supplementary Release on Saturation Properties of Ordinary Water Substance The International Association for the Properties of Water and Steam www.iapws.org
92. IAPWS 2011 Revised Release on the Pressure along the Melting and Sublimation Curves of Ordinary Water Substance The International Association for the Properties of Water and Steam www.iapws.org
93. IAPWS 2015 Guideline on a Virial Equation for the Fugacity of H2O in Humid Air The International Association for the Properties of Water and Steam www.iapws.org
94. IMC 1996 A Guide to the Measurement of Humidity (London: The Institute of Measurement and Control) ISBN: 0-904457-24-9
95. Ingersoll A P 1969 The runaway greenhouse: a history of water on Venus J. Atmos. Sci. 26 1191-8
96. Ingersoll A P 2013 Planetary Climates (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press)
97. Ingram W 2010 A very simple model for the water vapour feedback on climate change Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 136 30-40
98. IOC, SCOR and IAPSO 2010 The international thermodynamic equation of seawater - 2010: Calculation and use of thermodynamic properties 196 Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission, Manuals and Guides No. 56, UNESCO (English) http://www.TEOS-10.org
99. IPCC 2013 ed T F Stocker et al Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/wg1/
100. IUPAC 2006 Compendium of Chemical Terminology (the 'Gold Book') 2nd edn ed A D McNaught and A Wilkinson (Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications) (XML on-line corrected version: http://goldbook.iupac.org (2006-) created by M Nic, J Jirat and B Kosata; updates compiled by A Jenkins)
101. Jacobson M Z 2005 Fundamentals of Atmospheric Modeling 2nd edn (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press)
102. Jasechko S, Sharp Z D, Gibson J J, Birks S J, Yi Y and Fawcett P J 2013 Terrestrial water fluxes dominated by transpiration Nature 496 347-50
103. Johnston H S and Solomon S 1979 Thunderstorms as possible micrometeorological sink for stratospheric water J. Geophys. Res. 84 3155-8
104. Josey S A, Gulev S and Yu L 2013 Exchanges through the ocean surface Ocean Circulation and Climate. A 21st Century Perspective ed G Siedler et al (Amsterdam: Elsevier) pp 115-40
105. Josey S A, Kent E C and Taylor P K 1999 New insights into the ocean heat budget closure problem from analysis of the SOC air-sea flux climatology J. Clim. 12 2856-80
106. Kämpfer N (ed) 2013 Monitoring Atmospheric Water Vapour. Ground-based Remote Sensing and In-situ Methods (ISSI Scientific Report Series vol 10) (New York: Springer)
107. Kara A B, Hurlburt H E and Loh W-Y 2007 Which near-surface atmospheric variable drives air-sea temperature differences over the global ocean? J. Geophys. Res.-Ocean 112 C05020
108. Katsaros K 2001 Evaporation and humidity: Encyclopedia of Ocean Sciences vol 2 (Amsterdam: Elsevier) pp 870-7
109. Kintisch E 2014 Climate outsider finds missing global warming Science 344 348
110. Kleeman R and Power S B 1995 A simple atmospheric model of surface heat flux for use in ocean modeling studies J. Phys. Oceanogr. 25 92-105
111. 2000 SPARC assessment of upper tropospheric and stratospheric water vapour. 312 SPARC Report No 2 WCRP-No. 113, WMO/TD-No 1043
112. Kley D, Stone E J, Henderson W R, Drummond J W, Harrop W J, Schmeltekopf A L, Thompson T L and Winkler R H 1979 In situ measurements of the mixing ratio of water vapor in the stratosphere J. Atmos. Sci. 36 2513-24
113. Komabayasi M 1967 Discrete equilibrium temperatures of a hypothetical planet with the atmosphere and the hydrosphere of one component-two phase system under constant solar radiation J. Meteorol. Soc. Japan 45 137-8
114. Kosaka Y and Xie S-P 2013 Recent global-warming hiatus tied to equatorial Pacific surface cooling Nature 501 403-7
115. Kraus E B 1972 Atmosphere-Ocean Interaction (Oxford: Clarendon)
116. Kraus E B and Businger J A 1994 Atmosphere-Ocean Interaction (New York/Oxford: Oxford University Press/Clarendon)
117. Kusuda T 1965 Calculation of the temperature of a flat-plate wet surface under adiabatic conditions with respect to the Lewis relation Humidity and Moisture vol I Principles and Methods of Measuring Humidity in Gases ed R E Ruskin (New York: Reinhold Publishing Corporation) pp 16-32
118. Lacis A A, Schmidt G A, Rind D and Ruedy R A 2010 Atmospheric CO2: principal control knob governing Earth's temperature Science 330 356-9
119. Laliberté F, Zika J, Mudryk L, Kushner P J, Kjellsson J and Döös K 2015 Constrained work output of the moist atmospheric heat engine in a warming climate Science 347 540-3
120. Lamquin N, Gierens K, Stubenrauch C J and Chatterjee R 2009 Evaluation of upper tropospheric humidity forecasts from ECMWF using AIRS and CALIPSO data Atmos. Chem. Phys. 9 1779-93
121. Landau L D and Lifschitz E M 1974 Hydrodynamik (Berlin: Akademie-Verlag)
122. Lea D W 2015 Palaeoclimate: climate sensitivity in a warmer world Nature 518 46-7
123. Leiterer U, Dier H, Nagel D and Naebert T 2005 Correction method for RS80-A Humicap humidity profiles and their validation by lidar backscattering profiles in tropical cirrus clouds J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol. 22 18-29
124. Le Treut H, Somerville R, Cubasch U, Ding Y, Mauritzen C, Mokssit A, Peterson T and Prather M 2007 Historical overview of climate change ed S Solomon et al Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg1/ar4-wg1-chapter1.pdf
125. Lewis G N 1900 A new conception of thermal pressure and a theory of solutions Proc. Am. Acad. Arts Sci. 36 145-68
126. Lewis G N 1901a The law of physico-chemical change Proc. Am. Acad. Arts Sci. 37 49-69
127. Lewis G N 1901b Das Gesetz physiko-chemischer Vorgänge Z. Phys. Chem., Lpz 38 205-26
128. Lewis G N and Randall M 1923 Thermodynamics and the Free Energy of Chemical Substances (New York: McGraw-Hill)
129. Lewis G N and Randall M 1961 Thermodynamics (New York: McGraw-Hill)
130. Li J and Chylek P 2012 Atmospheric entropy. Part I: climate dissipation structure J. Clim. 25 3173-90
131. Li Y, Gu W, Chao J, Li L, Liu C, Xu Y, Chang Z, Wu L and Chen J 2015 Atmospheric parameters affecting sea ice losses in the context of gravity desalination Theor. Appl. Climatol. 121 685-93
132. Li J, Sun C and Jin F-F 2013 NAO implicated as a predictor of Northern Hemisphere mean temperature multidecadal variability Geophys. Res. Lett. 40 5497-502
133. List R J 1951 Smithsonian Meteorological Tables 6th revised edn (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution)
134. Liu W T and Niiler P P 1990 The sensitivity of latent heat flux to the air humidity approximations used in ocean circulation models J. Geophys. Res. 95 9745-53
135. Loncin M, Bimbenet J J and Lenges J 1968 Influence of the activity of water on the spoilage of foodstuffs Int. J. Food Sci. Technol. 3 131-42
136. Lovell-Smith J W 2006 On correlation in the water vapour pressure formulations. Metrologia 43 556-60
137. Lovell-Smith J W 2009 The propagation of uncertainty for humidity calculations Metrologia 46 607-15
138. Lovell-Smith J W 2012 Modification of vapor-pressure reference functions to include parameter covariance Int. J. Thermophys. 33 1390-407
139. Lovell-Smith J W and Pearson H 2006 On the concept of relative humidity Metrologia 43 129-34
140. Macdonald A M and Baringer M O 2013 Ocean heat transport Ocean Circulation and Climate. A 21st Century Perspective ed G Siedler (Amsterdam: Elsevier) pp 759-85
141. Mackrodt P 2012 A new attempt on a coulometric trace humidity generator Int. J. Thermophys. 33 1520-35
142. Marotzke J and Forster P M 2015 Forcing, feedback and internal variability in global temperature trends Nature 517 565-70
143. Martínez-Botí M A, Foster G L, Chalk T B, Rohling E J, Sexton P F, Lunt D J, Pancost R D, Badger M P S and Schmidt D N 2015 Plio-Pleistocene climate sensitivity evaluated using high-resolution CO2 records Nature 518 49-54
144. Mathlouthi M 2001 Water content, water activity, water structure and the stability of foodstuffs Food Control 12 409-17
145. Maxwell J C 1874 Van der Waals on the continuity of the gaseous and liquid states Nature 10 477-80
146. McDonald J E 1963 Intermolecular attractions and saturation vapor pressure J. Atmos. Sci. 20 178-80
147. Meyer C W and Harvey A H 2015 Dew-point measurements for water in compressed carbon dioxide AIChE J. 61 2913-25
148. Meyer C W, Miller W W, Ripple D C and Scace G E 2012 Uncertainty budget for the NIST hybrid humidity generator Int. J. Thermophys. 33 1488-99
149. Miller J F 1851 On the relation of the air and evaporation temperatures to the temperature of the dew-point, as determined by Mr Glaisher's hygrometrical tables, founded on the factors deduced from the six-hourly observations made at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. 141 141-8
150. Miloshevich L M, Vömel H, Paukkunen A, Heymsfield A J and Oltmans S J 2001 Characterization and correction of relative humidity measurements from Vaisala RS80-A radiosondes at cold temperatures J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol. 18 135-56
151. Miloshevich L M, Vömel H, Whiteman D N, Lesht B M, Schmidlin F J and Russo F 2006 Absolute accuracy of water vapor measurements from six operational radiosonde types launched during AWEX-G and implications for AIRS validation J. Geophys. Res. 111 D09510
152. Mitchell J F B 1989 The 'greenhouse' effect and climate change Rev. Geophys. 27 115-39
153. Möller D 2008 On the history of the scientific exploration of fog, dew, rain and other atmospheric water Special Issue: Fog Research DIE ERDE 139 11-44
154. Molyneux W 1685 A letter from William Molyneux Esq; sec. of the Dublin Society; to one of the S. of the R. S. concerning a new hygroscope, invented by him Phil. Trans. R. Soc. 15 1032-5
155. Mote P W, Rosenlof K H, McIntyre M E, Carr E S, Gille J C, Holton J R, Kinnersley J S, Pumphrey H C, Russel J M III and Waters J W 1996 An atmospheric tape recorder: the imprint of tropical tropopause temperatures on stratospheric water vapor J. Geophys. Res. 101 3989-4006
156. Mulligan J F and Hertz H G 1997 An unpublished lecture by Heinrich Hertz: 'On the energy balance of the Earth' Am. J. Phys. 65 36-45
157. Nagel D, Leiterer U, Dier H, Kats A, Reichardt J and Behrendt A 2001 High accuracy humidity measurements using the standardized frequency method with a research upper-air sounding system Meteorol. Z. 10 395-405
158. Newell R E and Gould-Stewart S 1981 A stratospheric fountain? J. Atmos. Sci. 38 2789-96
159. NF X 15-110 1994 Measurement of air moisture. Hydrometric parameters - Mesure de l'humidité de l'air - Parametres hygrométriques July, www.boutique.afnor.org/standard/nf-x15-110/measurement-of-air-moisture-hydrometric-parameters/article/771320/fa037684
160. OMI 1951 Values of some physical functions and constants used in meteorology. Definitions and specifications of water vapour in the atmosphere Organisation Météorologique Internationale Publication 79, Lausanne
161. Ort D R and Long S P 2014 Limits on yields in the corn belt Science 344 484-5
162. Ovarlez J, Gayet J-F, Gierens K, Ström J, Ovarlez H, Auriol F, Busen R and Schumann U 2002 Water vapour measurements inside cirrus clouds on Northern and Southern hemispheres during INCA Geophys. Res. Lett. 29 60-1 to 60-4
163. Paltridge G, Arking A and Pook M 2009 Trends in middle- and upper-level tropospheric humidity from NCEP reanalysis data Theor. Appl. Climatol. 98 351-59
164. Pawlowicz R, Feistel R, McDougall T J, Ridout P, Seitz S and Wolf H 2016 Metrological challenges for measurements of key climatological observables. Part 2: oceanic salinity Metrologia 53 R12-R25
165. Peixoto J P and Oort A H 1992 Physics of Climate (New York: American Institute of Physics)
166. Peixoto J P and Oort A H 1996 The climatology of relative humidity in the atmosphere J. Clim. 9 3443-63
167. Peter T, Marcolli C, Spichtinger P, Corti T, Baker M B and Koop T 2006 When dry air is too humid Science 314 1399-402
168. Pierce D W, Barnett T P and Gleckler P J 2011 Ocean circulations, heat budgets, and future commitment to climate change Annu. Rev. Environ. Resources 36 27-43
169. Pierce D W, Gleckler P J, Barnett T P, Santer B D and Durack P J 2012 The fingerprint of human-induced changes in the ocean's salinity and temperature fields Geophys. Res. Lett. 39 L21704
170. Pierrehumbert R T 1996 Some remarks on mechanisms for the regulation of tropical sea surface temperature Clouds, Chemistry and Climate (NATO ASI Series I vol 35) ed P J Crutzen (Berlin: Springer) pp 153-72 http://geosci.uchicago.edu/∼rtp1/papers/NATO-SST/NATO-SST.pdf
171. Pierrehumbert R T 2010 Principles of Planetary Climate (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press)
172. Poan D E, Roehrig R, Couvreux F and Lafore J-P 2013 West African monsoon intraseasonal variability: a precipitable water perspective J. Atmos. Sci. 70 1035-52
173. Poynting J H 1881 Change of state: solid-liquid Phil. Mag. 12 32-48
174. Prescott J A and Collins J A 1951 The lag of temperature behind solar radiation Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 77 121-6
175. Pruppacher H R and Klett J D 1997 Microphysics of Clouds and Precipitation. Second Revised and Enlarged Edition with an Introduction to Cloud Chemistry and Cloud Electricity (Dordrecht/Boston, MA/London: Kluwer Academic Publishers)
176. Quaas J 2012 Evaluating the 'critical relative humidity' as a measure of subgrid-scale variability of humidity in general circulation model cloud cover parameterizations using satellite data J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos. 117 D09208
177. Randall D 2012 Atmosphere, Clouds, and Climate (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press)
178. Randel D L, Greenwald T L, Vonder Haar T H, Stephens G L, Ringerud M A and Combs C L 1996 A new global water vapor dataset Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 77 1233-46
179. Rantala M J 2007 Evolution of nakedness in Homo sapiens J. Zool. 273 1-7
180. Regnault V 1845 Hygrometrical Researches, Scientific Memoirs selected from the transactions of foreign academies of science and learned academies and from foreign journals V4 ed R Taylor 606-60 (1846)
181. Reid P C and Valdés L 2011 ICES status report on climate change in the North Atlantic. ICES Cooperative Research Report 310 www.vliz.be/imisdocs/publications/226286.pdf
182. Retallack B J 1973 Compendium of Meteorology; For Use by Class I and II Meteorological Personnel (Physical Meteorology Training Manual Series) vol I No 364 Part 2
183. Robinson R A and Sinclair D A 1934 The activity coefficients of the alkali chlorides and of lithium iodide in aqueous solution from vapor pressure measurements J. Am. Chem. Soc. 56 1830-5
184. Rogers R R and Yau M K 1989 Short Course in Cloud Physics 3rd edn (Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann)
185. Romps D M and Kuang Z 2010 Do undiluted convective plumes exist in the upper tropical troposphere? J. Atmos. Sci. 67 468-84
186. Rosenlof K H et al 2001 Stratospheric water vapor increases over the past half-century Geophys. Res. Lett. 28 1195-8
187. Santer B D et al 2007 Identification of human-induced changes in atmospheric moisture content Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 104 15248-53
188. Saunders P M 1967 The temperature at the ocean-air interface J. Atmos. Sci. 24 269-73
189. Schiermeier Q 2015 Climatologists to physicists: your planet needs you Nature 520 140-1
190. Schiraldi A, Fessas D and Signorelli M 2012 Water activity in biological systems - a review Polish J. Food Nutrition Sci. 62 5-13
191. Schluessel P, Emery W J, Grassl H and Mammen T 1990 On the bulk-skin temperature difference and its impact on satellite remote sensing of sea surface temperature J. Geophys. Res. 95 13341-56
192. Schmidt G A, Ruedy R A, Miller R L and Lacis A A 2010 Attribution of the present-day total greenhouse effect J. Geophys. Res. 115 D20106
193. Schmidt H et al 2012 Solar irradiance reduction to counteract radiative forcing from a quadrupling of CO2: climate responses simulated by four earth system models Earth Syst. Dyn. 3 63-78
194. Schneider T, O'Gorman P A and Levine X J 2010 Water vapor and the dynamics of climate changes Rev. Geophys. 48 RG3001
195. Schwartz S E 2007 Heat capacity, time constant, and sensitivity of Earth's climate system J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos. 112 D24S05
196. Scott W J 1958 The effect of residual water on the survival of dried bacteria during storage J. Gen. Microbiol. 19 624-33
197. Seidel D J 2002 Water Vapor: Distribution and Trends. Encyclopedia of Global Environmental Change (New York: Wiley) http://eu.wiley.com/legacy/wileychi/egec/pdf/GB085-W.PDF
198. Shaw W N 1889 Report on hygrometric methods: first part, including the saturation method and the chemical method, and dew-point instruments Phil. Trans. A 179 73-149
199. Sherwood S C, Ingram W, Tsushima Y, Satoh M, Roberts M, Vidale P L and O'Gorman P A 2010 Relative humidity changes in a warmer climate J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos. 115 D09104
200. Smagorinsky J 1960 On the dynamical prediction of large-scale condensation by numerical methods Geophys. Monogr. 5 71-8
201. Soares P C 2010 Warming power of CO2 and H2O: correlations with temperature changes Int. J. Geosci. 1 102-12
202. Solomon S 1988 The mystery of the Antarctic Ozone 'Hole' Rev. Geophys. 26 131-48
203. Sonntag D 1966 Hygrometrie (Berlin: Akademie-Verlag)
204. Spivakovsky C M et al 2000 Three-dimensional climatological distribution of tropospheric OH: update and evaluation J. Geophys. Res. 105 8931-80
205. Sprung A 1888 Über die Bestimmung der Luftfeuchtigkeit mit Hilfe des Assmannschen Aspirationspsychrometers Das Wetter 5 105-8
206. Steinman B A, Mann M E and Miller S K 2015 Atlantic and Pacific multidecadal oscillations and Northern Hemisphere temperatures Science 347 988-90
207. Stephens G L, Li J, Wild M, Clayson C A, Loeb N, Kato S, L'Ecuyer T, Stackhouse P W, Lebsock M and Andrews T 2012 An update on Earth's energy balance in light of the latest global observations Nature Geosci. 5 691-6
208. Stevens B and Bony S 2013 What are climate models missing? Science 340 1053-4
209. Stevens M and Bell S A 1992 The NPL standard humidity generator: an analysis of uncertainty by validation of individual component performance Meas. Sci. Technol. 3 943-52
210. Sugiyama M, Stone P H and Emanuel K A 2005 The role of relative humidity in radiative-convective equilibrium J. Atmos. Sci. 62 2001-11
211. Sundqvist H 1978 A parameterization scheme for non-convective condensation including prediction of cloud water content Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 104 677-90
212. Teitelbaum H, Moustaoui M, Basdevant C and Holton J R 2000 An alternative mechanism explaining the hygropause formation in tropical regions Geophys. Res. Lett. 27 221-4
213. Tollefsen J 2012 Climate forecasting: a break in the clouds Nature 485 164-6
214. Tollefsen J 2014 Climate change: the case of the missing heat Nature 505 276-8
215. Tompkins A M, Gierens K and Rädel G 2007 Ice supersaturation in the ECMWF integrated forecast system Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 133 53-63
216. Trenberth K E, Fasullo J T and Kiehl J 2009 Earth's global energy budget Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 90 311-23
217. Trenberth K E et al 2007 Observations: surface and atmospheric climate change ed S Solomon et al Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg1/ar4-wg1-chapter3-supp-material.pdf
218. Van der Waals J D 1873 Over de Continuiteit van den Gas- en Vloeistoftoestand PhD Thesis Leiden University, The Netherlands
219. van Hooidonk R and Huber M 2009 Equivocal evidence for a thermostat and unusually low levels of coral bleaching in the Western Pacific Warm Pool Geophys. Res. Lett. 36 L06705
220. VDI/VDE 3514 2007 Measurement of humidity - Characteristics and symbols. VDI VDE-Gesellschaft Mess- und Automatisierungstechnik (GMA) Fachausschuss Gasfeuchtemessung
221. VIM 2012 International vocabulary of metrology - Basic and general concepts and associated terms (VIM) 3rd edn JCGM 200:2012, www.bipm.org/en/publications/guides/vim.html
222. Wang X et al 2014 A two-fold increase of carbon cycle sensitivity to tropical temperature variations Nature 506 212-15
223. Wagner W and Pruss A 1993 International equations for the saturation properties of ordinary water substance - revised according to the International Temperature Scale of 1990 Addendum to Journal of Physical Chemical Reference Data 16, 893 (1987) J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data 22 783-7
224. Wagner W, Riethmann T, Feistel R and Harvey A H 2011 New equations for the sublimation pressure and melting pressure of H2O ice Ih J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data 40 043103
225. Warren S G, Eastman R M and Hahn C J 2007 A survey of changes in cloud cover and cloud types over land from surface observations 1971-96 J. Clim. 20 717-38
226. Webster C R, May R D, Trimble C A, Chave R G and Kendall J 1994 Aircraft (ER-2) laser infrared absorption spectrometer (ALIAS) for in-situ stratospheric measurements of HCl, N2O, CH4, NO2, and HNO3 Appl. Opt. 33 454-72
227. Wells N C 2012 The Atmosphere and Ocean (Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell)
228. Wexler A and Hyland R W 1983 Thermodynamic properties of dry air, moist air and water and SI psychrometric charts ASHRAE ed A Wexler pp 150-303 (Project 216-RP)
229. Wielicki B A, Wong T, Loeb N, Minnis P, Priestley K and Kandel R 2005 Changes in Earth's albedo measured by satellite Science 308 825
230. Willett K M, Williams C N Jr, Dunn R J H, Thorne P W, Bell S, de Podesta M, Jones P D and Parker D E 2013 HadISDH: an updateable land surface specific humidity product for climate monitoring Clim. Past 9 657-77
231. Wisniak J 2001 Historical development of the vapor pressure equation from Dalton to Antoine J. Phase Equilib. 22 622-30
232. WMO 1966 International Meteorological Tables ed S Letestu WMO-No. 188.TP.94
233. WMO 2008 Guide to Meteorological Instruments and Methods of Observation 7th edn (Geneva: World Meteorological Organization) www.wmo.int/pages/prog/gcos/documents/gruanmanuals/CIMO/CIMO-Guide-7th-Edition-2008.pdf
234. Worley S J, Woodruff S D, Reynolds R W, Lubker S J and Lott N 2005 ICOADS release 2.1 data and products Int. J. Climatol. 25 823-42
235. Worrall R W 1965 Psychrometric determination of relative humidities in air with dry-bulb temperatures exceeding 212°F Humidity and Moisture, Volume 1 - Principles and methods of measuring humidity in gases ed R E Ruskin (New York: Reinhold) pp 105-9
236. Wright D G, Feistel R, Reissmann J H, Miyagawa K, Jackett D R, Wagner W, Overhoff U, Guder C, Feistel A and Marion G M 2010 Numerical implementation and oceanographic application of the thermodynamic potentials of liquid water, water vapour, ice, seawater and humid air - Part 2. The library routines Ocean Sci. 6 695-718
237. Wright P W 1988 An Atlas Based on the 'COADS' Data Set: Fields of Mean Wind, Cloudiness and Humidity at the Surface of the Global Ocean. Report No. 14
238. Yu F and Luo G 2014 Effect of solar variations on particle formation and cloud condensation nuclei Environ. Res. Lett. 9 045004