Age, culture, and self-employment motivation

Small Business Economics

Volumn 46, Issue 2, 2016, Pages 187-213

  Minola, Tommaso ^a   Criaco, Giuseppe ^b   Obschonka, Martin ^c,d  

^a UNIVERSITY OF BERGAMO   (Italy)

^b JÖNKÖPING INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS SCHOOL   (Sweden)

^c SAARLAND UNIVERSITY   (Germany)

^d FRIEDRICH SCHILLER UNIVERSITY JENA   (Germany)

Author keywords

Age; Culture; Entrepreneurship; Life span; Self employment motivation

Indexed keywords

EID: 84955368951     PISSN: 0921898X     EISSN: 15730913     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s11187-015-9685-6     Document Type: Article

References (140)

1. Aidis, R., & Van Praag, M. (2007). Illegal entrepreneurship experience: Does it make a difference for business performance and motivation? Journal of Business Venturing,22(2), 283–310. doi:10.1016/j.jbusvent.2006.02.002.
2. Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes,50(2), 179–211. doi:10.1016/0749-5978(91)90020-T.
3. Alas, R. (2006). Ethics in countries with different cultural dimensions. Journal of Business Ethics,69(3), 237–247. doi:10.1007/s10551-006-9088-3.
4. Allen, S. D., Link, A. N., & Rosenbaum, D. T. (2007). Entrepreneurship and human capital: Evidence of patenting activity from the academic sector. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice,31(6), 937–951. doi:10.1111/j.1540-6520.2007.00207.x.
5. An, C.-B., & Jeon, S.-H. (2006). Demographic change and economic growth: An inverted-U shape relationship. Economics Letters,92(3), 447–454. doi:10.1016/j.econlet.2006.03.030.
6. Arthur, W. B., & Espenshade, T. J. (1988). Immigration policy and immigrants’ ages. Population and Development Review,. doi:10.2307/1973574.
7. Athayde, R. (2009). Measuring enterprise potential in young people. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice,33(2), 481–500. doi:10.1111/j.1540-6520.2009.00300.x.
8. Autio, E., Pathak, S., & Wennberg, K. (2013). Consequences of cultural practices for entrepreneurial behaviors. Journal of International Business Studies,44(4), 334–362. doi:10.1057/jibs.2013.15.
9. Baker, T., Gedajlovic, E., & Lubatkin, M. (2005). A framework for comparing entrepreneurship processes across nations. Journal of International Business Studies,36(5), 492–504. doi:10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8400153.
10. Baltes, P. B. (1987). Theoretical propositions of life-span developmental psychology: On the dynamics between growth and decline. Developmental Psychology,23(5), 611. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.23.5.611.
11. Baltes, P. B., Lindenberger, U., & Staudinger, U. M. (2006). Life span theory in developmental psychology. In W. Damon & R. M. Lerner (Eds.), Theoretical models of human development (pp. 569–664). Wiley. doi:10.1002/9780470147658.chpsy0111
12. Baltes, P. B., Staudinger, U. M., & Lindenberger, U. (1999). Lifespan psychology: Theory and application to intellectual functioning. Annual Review of Psychology, 50, 471–507.
13. Barak, B., Mathur, A., Lee, K., & Zhang, Y. (2001). Perceptions of age–identity: A cross-cultural inner-age exploration. Psychology & Marketing,18(10), 1003–1029. doi:10.1002/mar.1041.
14. Baron, R. A., & Ward, T. B. (2004). Expanding entrepreneurial cognition’s toolbox: Potential contributions from the field of cognitive science. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice,28(6), 553–573. doi:10.1111/j.1540-6520.2004.00064.x.
15. Barro, R. J. (1989). Economic growth in a cross section of countries. National Bureau of Economic Research,. doi:10.3386/w3120.
16. Benz, M., & Frey, B. S. (2008). The value of doing what you like: Evidence from the self-employed in 23 countries. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization,68(3), 445–455. doi:10.1016/j.jebo.2006.10.014.
17. Block, J., Thurik, R., Van der Zwan, P., & Walter, S. (2013). Business takeover or new venture? Individual and environmental determinants from a cross-country study. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice,37(5), 1099–1121. doi:10.1111/j.1540-6520.2012.00521.x.
18. Bluedorn, A. C., & Martin, G. (2008). The time frames of entrepreneurs. Journal of Business Venturing,23(1), 1–20. doi:10.1016/j.jbusvent.2006.05.005.
19. Bönte, W., Falck, O., & Heblich, S. (2009). The impact of regional age structure on entrepreneurship. Economic Geography,85(3), 269–287. doi:10.1111/j.1944-8287.2009.01032.x.
20. Bronfenbrenner, U. (1986). Ecology of the family as a context for human development: Research perspectives. Developmental Psychology,22(6), 723. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.22.6.723.
21. Bruno, G. S., Marelli, E., & Signorelli, M. (2014). The rise of NEET and Youth Unemployment in EU regions after the crisis. Comparative Economic Studies,56(4), 592–615. doi:10.1057/ces.2014.27.
22. Caliendo, M., Fossen, F., & Kritikos, A. S. (2014). Personality characteristics and the decisions to become and stay self-employed. Small Business Economics,42(4), 787–814. doi:10.1007/s11187-013-9514-8.
23. Campopiano, G., Minola, T., & Sainaghi, R. (2016). Students climbing the entrepreneurial ladder: Family social capital and environment-related motives in hospitality and tourism. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, forthcoming.
24. Carsrud, A., & Brännback, M. (2011). Entrepreneurial motivations: What do we still need to know? Journal of Small Business Management,49(1), 9–26. doi:10.1111/j.1540-627X.2010.00312.x.
25. Carsrud, A. L., & Brännback, M. (2014). Linking achievement motivation to intentions, goals and entrepreneurial behaviors. In J. R. Mitchell, R. K. Mitchell, & B. Randolph-Seng (Eds.), Handbook of entrepreneurial cognition (pp. 86–112). Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.
26. Carstensen, L. L. (2006). The influence of a sense of time on human development. Science,312(5782), 1913–1915. doi:10.1126/science.1127488.
27. Cohler, B. J. (1985). Aging in the old and new world: Variations in the peasant tradition. Contributions to Human Development, 14, 65–79.
28. Coleman, S. (2007). The role of human and financial capital in the profitability and growth of women-owned small firms. Journal of Small Business Management,45(3), 303–319. doi:10.1111/j.1540-627X.2007.00214.x.
29. Cooper, A. C., Woo, C. Y., & Dunkelberg, W. C. (1988). Entrepreneurs’ perceived chances for success. Journal of Business Venturing,3(2), 97–108. doi:10.1016/0883-9026(88)90020-1.
30. Curran, J., & Blackburn, R. A. (2001). Older people and the enterprise society: Age and self-employment propensities. Work, Employment & Society,15(04), 889–902. doi:10.1017/S0950017001008893.
31. Danes, S. M., Lee, J., Stafford, K., & Heck, R. K. Z. (2008). The effects of ethnicity, families and culture on entrepreneurial experience: An extension of sustainable family business theory. Journal of Developmental Entrepreneurship, 13(03), 229–268.
32. Dimov, D. (2007). From opportunity insight to opportunity intention: The importance of person-situation learning match. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice,31(4), 561–583. doi:10.1111/j.1540-6520.2007.00188.x.
33. Donnellan, M. B., & Lucas, R. E. (2008). Age differences in the Big Five across the life span: Evidence from two national samples. Psychology and Aging,23(3), 558. doi:10.1037/a0012897.
34. Drennan, J., Kennedy, J., & Renfrow, P. (2005). Impact of childhood experiences on the development of entrepreneurial intentions. The International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Innovation,6(4), 231–238. doi:10.5367/000000005775179801.
35. Ebner, N. C., Freund, A. M., & Baltes, P. B. (2006). Developmental changes in personal goal orientation from young to late adulthood: From striving for gains to maintenance and prevention of losses. Psychology and Aging,21(4), 664. doi:10.1037/0882-7974.21.4.664.
36. Elder, G. H. (1994). Time, human agency, and social change: Perspectives on the life course. Social Psychology Quarterly, 57(1), 4–15.
37. Erikson, E. H. (1980). Identity and the life cycle (Vol. 1). New York: WW Norton & Company.
38. Evans, D. S., & Leighton, L. S. (1989). The determinants of changes in US self-employment, 1968–1987. Small Business Economics,1(2), 111–119. doi:10.1007/BF00398629.
39. Fitzsimmons, J. R., & Douglas, E. J. (2011). Interaction between feasibility and desirability in the formation of entrepreneurial intentions. Journal of Business Venturing,26(4), 431–440. doi:10.1016/j.jbusvent.2010.01.001.
40. Forbes, D. P. (2005). The effects of strategic decision making on entrepreneurial self-efficacy. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice,29(5), 599–626. doi:10.1111/j.1540-6520.2005.00100.x.
41. Fougère, M., & Mérette, M. (1999). Population ageing and economic growth in seven OECD countries. Economic Modelling,16(3), 411–427. doi:10.1016/S0264-9993(99)00008-5.
42. Gibson, D. E. (2004). Role models in career development: New directions for theory and research. Journal of Vocational Behavior,65(1), 134–156. doi:10.1016/S0001-8791(03)00051-4.
43. Gielnik, M. M., Zacher, H., & Frese, M. (2012). Focus on opportunities as a mediator of the relationship between business owners’ age and venture growth. Journal of Business Venturing,27(1), 127–142. doi:10.1016/j.jbusvent.2010.05.002.
44. Goethner, M., Obschonka, M., Silbereisen, R. K., & Cantner, U. (2012). Scientists’ transition to academic entrepreneurship: Economic and psychological determinants. Journal of Economic Psychology,33(3), 628–641. doi:10.1016/j.joep.2011.12.002.
45. Gould, S. J. (1999). A critique of Heckhausen and Schulz’s (1995) life-span theory of control from a cross-cultural perspective. Psychological Review, 106(3), 597–604. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.106.3.597
46. Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., Anderson, R. E., & Tatham, R. L. (2006). Multivariate data analysis (Vol. 6). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.
47. Heckhausen, J., & Schulz, R. (1995). A life-span theory of control. Psychological Review,102(2), 284. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.102.2.284.
48. Hedden, T., Park, D. C., Nisbett, R., Ji, L.-J., Jing, Q., & Jiao, S. (2002). Cultural variation in verbal versus spatial neuropsychological function across the life span. Neuropsychology,16(1), 65. doi:10.1037/0894-4105.16.1.65.
49. Heim, B. (2015). Understanding the decline in self-employment among individuals nearing retirement. Small Business Economics,45(3), 561–580. doi:10.1007/s11187-015-9660-2.
50. Heine, S. J., Lehman, D. R., Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (1999). Is there a universal need for positive self-regard? Psychological Review,106(4), 766. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.106.4.766.
51. Hindle, K., Klyver, K., & Jennings, D. F. (2009). An “informed” intent model: Incorporating human capital, social capital, and gender variables into the theoretical model of entrepreneurial intentions. In A. L. Carsrud & M. Brännback (Eds.), Understanding the entrepreneurial mind: International studies in entrepreneurship (pp. 35–50). New York: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-0443-0_3
52. Hisrich, R. D. (1990). Entrepreneurship/intrapreneurship. American Psychologist,45(2), 209.
53. Hofstede, G. H., & Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture’s consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions and organizations across nations. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.45.2.209.
54. House, R. J., Hanges, P. J., Javidan, M., Dorfman, P. W., & Gupta, V. (2004). Culture, leadership, and organizations: The GLOBE study of 62 societies. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage publications.
55. Iakovleva, T., & Kolvereid, L. (2008). An integrated model of entrepreneurial intentions. International Journal of Business and Globalisation,3(1), 66–80. doi:10.1504/IJBG.2009.021632.
56. Kan, K., & Tsai, W.-D. (2006). Entrepreneurship and risk aversion. Small Business Economics,26(5), 465–474. doi:10.1007/s11187-005-5603-7.
57. Kanfer, R., & Ackerman, P. L. (2004). Aging, adult development, and work motivation. Academy of Management Review,29(3), 440–458. doi:10.5465/AMR.2004.13670969.
58. Kautonen, T., Down, S., & Minniti, M. (2014). Ageing and entrepreneurial preferences. Small Business Economics,42(3), 579–594. doi:10.1007/s11187-013-9489-5.
59. Kautonen, T., Luoto, S., & Tornikoski, E. T. (2010). Influence of work history on entrepreneurial intentions in ‘prime age’ and ‘third age’: A preliminary study. International Small Business Journal,28(6), 583–601. doi:10.1177/0266242610368592.
60. Kautonen, T., Tornikoski, E. T., & Kibler, E. (2011). Entrepreneurial intentions in the third age: The impact of perceived age norms. Small Business Economics,37(2), 219–234. doi:10.1007/s11187-009-9238-y.
61. Kautonen, T., van Gelderen, M., & Fink, M. (2015). Robustness of the theory of planned behavior in predicting entrepreneurial intentions and actions. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice,39(3), 655–674. doi:10.1111/etap.12056.
62. Kibler, E., Wainwright, T., Kautonen, T., & Blackburn, R. (2015). Can social exclusion against “older entrepreneurs” be managed? Journal of Small Business Management,53, 193–208. doi:10.1111/jsbm.12194.
63. Kickul, J., & Krueger, N. (2004). A cognitive processing model of entrepreneurial self-efficacy and intentionality. In S. A. Zahra, et al. (Eds.), Frontiers of Entrepreneurship Research (2004) (pp. 607–617). Wellesley, MA: Babson College.
64. Kim, P. H., Lee, C., & Reynolds, P. D. (2012). Backed by the state: Social protection and starting businesses in knowledge intensive industries. Advances in entrepreneurship, firm emergence and growth,14, 25–62. doi:10.1108/S1074-7540(2012)0000014005.
65. Kooij, D. T., De Lange, A. H., Jansen, P. G., Kanfer, R., & Dikkers, J. S. (2011). Age and work-related motives: Results of a meta-analysis. Journal of Organizational Behavior,32(2), 197–225. doi:10.1002/job.665.
66. Kreiser, P. M., Marino, L. D., Dickson, P., & Weaver, K. M. (2010). Cultural influences on entrepreneurial orientation: The impact of national culture on risk taking and proactiveness in SMEs. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice,34(5), 959–983. doi:10.1111/j.1540-6520.2010.00396.x.
67. Krueger, N. F. (1993). The impact of prior entrepreneurial exposure on perceptions of new venture feasibility and desirability. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice,18(1), 5–21.
68. Krueger, N. F. (2007). What lies beneath? The experiential essence of entrepreneurial thinking. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice,31(1), 123–138. doi:10.1111/j.1540-6520.2007.00166.x.
69. Krueger, N. F., & Brazeal, D. V. (1994). Entrepreneurial potential and potential entrepreneurs. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice,18(3), 91–104.
70. Krueger, N. F., Reilly, M. D., & Carsrud, A. L. (2000). Competing models of entrepreneurial intentions. Journal of Business Venturing,15(5), 411–432. doi:10.1016/S0883-9026(98)00033-0.
71. Lafuente, E. M., & Vaillant, Y. (2013). Age driven influence of role-models on entrepreneurship in a transition economy. Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development,20(1), 181–203. doi:10.1108/14626001311298475.
72. Laspita, S., Breugst, N., Heblich, S., & Patzelt, H. (2012). Intergenerational transmission of entrepreneurial intentions. Journal of Business Venturing,27(4), 414–435. doi:10.1016/j.jbusvent.2011.11.006.
73. Lerner, R. M. (2006). Developmental science, developmental systems, and contemporary theories of human development. In W. Damon & R. M. Lerner (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology (6th ed.). New York: Wiley. doi:10.1002/9780470147658.chpsy0101
74. Lévesque, M., & Minniti, M. (2006). The effect of aging on entrepreneurial behavior. Journal of Business Venturing,21(2), 177–194. doi:10.1016/j.jbusvent.2005.04.003.
75. Lévesque, M., & Minniti, M. (2011). Age matters: How demographics influence aggregate entrepreneurship. Strategic Entrepreneurship Journal,5(3), 269–284. doi:10.1002/sej.117.
76. Liñán, F., & Chen, Y. W. (2009). Development and cross-cultural application of a specific instrument to measure entrepreneurial intentions. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice,33(3), 593–617. doi:10.1111/j.1540-6520.2009.00318.x.
77. Lind, J. T., & Mehlum, H. (2010). With or without U? The appropriate test for a U-shaped relationship*. Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics,72(1), 109–118. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0084.2009.00569.x.
78. Littunen, H., & Virtanen, M. (2009). Differentiating factors of venture growth: From statics to dynamics. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior and Research,15(6), 535–554. doi:10.1108/13552550910995425.
79. Lucas, R. E., & Donnellan, M. B. (2009). Age differences in personality: Evidence from a nationally representative Australian sample. Developmental Psychology,45(5), 1353. doi:10.1037/a0013914.
80. Mayr, U., Wozniak, D., Davidson, C., Kuhns, D., & Harbaugh, W. T. (2012). Competitiveness across the life span: The feisty fifties. Psychology and Aging,27(2), 278. doi:10.1037/a0025655.
81. McCrae, R. R., Costa, P. T., de Lima, M. P., Simões, A., Ostendorf, F., Angleitner, A., et al. (1999). Age differences in personality across the adult life span: Parallels in five cultures. Developmental Psychology,35(2), 466. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.35.2.466.
82. McMullen, J. S., & Shepherd, D. A. (2006). Entrepreneurial action and the role of uncertainty in the theory of the entrepreneur. Academy of Management Review,31(1), 132–152. doi:10.5465/AMR.2006.19379628.
83. Minola, T., Criaco, G., & Cassia, L. (2014). Are youth really different new beliefs for old practices in entrepreneurship. International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Innovation Management 2,18(2–3), 233–259. doi:10.1504/IJEIM.2014.062881.
84. Mitchell, R. K., Busenitz, L., Lant, T., McDougall, P. P., Morse, E. A., & Smith, J. B. (2002). Toward a theory of entrepreneurial cognition: Rethinking the people side of entrepreneurship research. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice,27(2), 93–104. doi:10.1111/1540-8520.00001.
85. Mitchell, J. R., & Shepherd, D. A. (2010). To thine own self be true: Images of self, images of opportunity, and entrepreneurial action. Journal of Business Venturing,25(1), 138–154. doi:10.1016/j.jbusvent.2008.08.001.
86. Mitchell, R. K., Smith, B., Seawright, K. W., & Morse, E. A. (2000). Cross-cultural cognitions and the venture creation decision. Academy of Management Journal,43(5), 974–993. doi:10.2307/1556422.
87. Mosquera, P. M. R., Manstead, A. S., & Fischer, A. H. (2002). Honor in the Mediterranean and Northern Europe. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology,33(1), 16–36. doi:10.1177/0022022102033001002.
88. Mueller, S. L., & Thomas, A. S. (2001). Culture and entrepreneurial potential: A nine country study of locus of control and innovativeness. Journal of Business Venturing,16(1), 51–75. doi:10.1016/S0883-9026(99)00039-7.
89. Mueller, S. L., Thomas, A. S., & Jaeger, A. M. (2002). National entrepreneurial potential: The role of culture, economic development, and political history. Advances in Comparative International Management,14, 221–257. doi:10.1016/S0747-7929(02)14037-6.
90. Nickell, S. (1997). Unemployment and labor market rigidities: Europe versus North America. The Journal of Economic Perspectives, 11(3), 55–74.
91. Nicolaou, N., Shane, S., Cherkas, L., Hunkin, J., & Spector, T. D. (2008). Is the tendency to engage in entrepreneurship genetic? Management Science,54(1), 167–179. doi:10.1287/mnsc.1070.0761.
92. Obschonka, M., & Silbereisen, R. K. (2012). Entrepreneurship from a developmental science perspective. International Journal of Developmental Science,6(3), 107–115.
93. Obschonka, M., Silbereisen, R. K., & Schmitt-Rodermund, E. (2010). Entrepreneurial intention as developmental outcome. Journal of Vocational Behavior,77(1), 63–72. doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2010.02.008.
94. Obschonka, M., Silbereisen, R. K., & Schmitt-Rodermund, E. (2012). Explaining entrepreneurial behavior: Dispositional personality traits, growth of personal entrepreneurial resources, and business idea generation. The Career Development Quarterly,60(2), 178–190. doi:10.1002/j.2161-0045.2012.00015.x.
95. Obschonka, M., Silbereisen, R. K., & Schmitt-Rodermund, E. (2015). Successful entrepreneurship as developmental outcome. European Psychologist,. doi:10.1027/1016-9040/a000075.
96. Obschonka, M., Silbereisen, R. K., Schmitt-Rodermund, E., & Stuetzer, M. (2011). Nascent entrepreneurship and the developing individual: Early entrepreneurial competence in adolescence and venture creation success during the career. Journal of Vocational Behavior,79(1), 121–133. doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2010.12.005.
97. Orth, U., Trzesniewski, K. H., & Robins, R. W. (2010). Self-esteem development from young adulthood to old age: A cohort-sequential longitudinal study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,98(4), 645. doi:10.1037/a0018769.
98. Oyserman, D., Coon, H. M., & Kemmelmeier, M. (2002). Rethinking individualism and collectivism: Evaluation of theoretical assumptions and meta-analyses. Psychological Bulletin,128(1), 3. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.128.1.3.
99. Pantea, M.-C. (2015). On entrepreneurial education: dilemmas and tensions in nonformal learning. Studies in Continuing Education. (ahead-of-print). doi:10.1080/0158037X.2015.1032920
100. Park, D. C., & Huang, C.-M. (2010). Culture wires the brain a cognitive neuroscience perspective. Perspectives on Psychological Science,5(4), 391–400. doi:10.1177/1745691610374591.
101. Park, D. C., Nisbett, R., & Hedden, T. (1999). Aging, culture, and cognition. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences,54(2), P75–P84. doi:10.1093/geronb/54B.2.P75.
102. Parker, S. C. (2009). The economics of entrepreneurship. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
103. Peterson, M. F., Arregle, J.-L., & Martin, X. (2012). Multilevel models in international business research. Journal of International Business Studies,43(5), 451–457. doi:10.1016/j.jbusvent.2014.04.001.
104. Rauch, A., & Frese, M. (2007). Let’s put the person back into entrepreneurship research: A meta-analysis on the relationship between business owners’ personality traits, business creation, and success. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology,16(4), 353–385. doi:10.1080/13594320701595438.
105. Raudenbush, S. W., & Yang, M. (1998). Numerical integration via high-order, multivariate LaPlace approximation with application to multilevel models. Multilevel Modelling Newsletter, 10(2).
106. Read, S., Sarasvathy, S., Dew, N., Wiltbank, R., & Ohlsson, A.-V. (2010). Effectual entrepreneurship. London: Taylor & Francis.
107. Reynolds, P., & Miller, B. (1992). New firm gestation: Conception, birth, and implications for research. Journal of Business Venturing,7(5), 405–417. doi:10.1016/0883-9026(92)90016-K.
108. Robins, R. W., Hendin, H. M., & Trzesniewski, K. H. (2001). Measuring global self-esteem: Construct validation of a single-item measure and the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,27(2), 151–161. doi:10.1177/0146167201272002.
109. Rolison, J. J., Hanoch, Y., & Wood, S. (2012). Risky decision making in younger and older adults: The role of learning. Psychology and Aging,27(1), 129. doi:10.1037/a0024689.
110. Sapienza, P., Zingales, L., & Guiso, L. (2006). Does culture affect economic outcomes? National Bureau of Economic Research,. doi:10.3386/w11999.
111. Sasabuchi, S. (1980). A test of a multivariate normal mean with composite hypotheses determined by linear inequalities. Biometrika,67(2), 429–439. doi:10.1093/biomet/67.2.429.
112. Schaie, K. W. (1965). A general model for the study of developmental problems. Psychological Bulletin,64(2), 92. doi:10.1037/h0022371.
113. Schjoedt, L., Renko, M., & Shaver, K. G. (2014). Looking into the future: valid multiple-and single-item measures in entrepreneurship research. In M. Brännback, A. L. Carsrud (Eds.), Handbook of Research Methods and Applications in Entrepreneurship and Small Business (pp. 112–135).
114. Schlaegel, C., & Koenig, M. (2014). Determinants of entrepreneurial intent: A meta-analytic test and integration of competing models. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice,38(2), 291–332. doi:10.1111/etap.12087.
115. Segall, M. H., Lonner, W. J., & Berry, J. W. (1998). Cross-cultural psychology as a scholarly discipline: On the flowering of culture in behavioral research. American Psychologist,53(10), 1101. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.53.10.1101.
116. Shane, S., Locke, E. A., & Collins, C. J. (2003). Entrepreneurial motivation. Human Resource Management Review,13(2), 257–279. doi:10.1016/S1053-4822(03)00017-2.
117. Shane, S., & Nicolaou, N. (2015). Creative personality, opportunity recognition and the tendency to start businesses: A study of their genetic predispositions. Journal of Business Venturing,30(3), 407–419. doi:10.1016/j.jbusvent.2014.04.001.
118. Shapero, A., & Sokol, L. (1982). The social dimensions of entrepreneurship. In C. A. Kent, D. L. Sexton & K. H. Vesper (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Entrepreneurship (pp. 72–90). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
119. Shneor, R., Metin Camgöz, S., & Bayhan Karapinar, P. (2013). The interaction between culture and sex in the formation of entrepreneurial intentions. Entrepreneurship and Regional Development,25(9–10), 781–803. doi:10.1080/08985626.2013.862973.
120. Sieger, P., & Minola, T. (forthcoming). The family’s financial support as a “poisoned gift”: A family embeddedness perspective on entrepreneurial intentions. Journal of Small Business Management.
121. Siivonen, P., & Isopahkala-Bouret, U. (2014). Adult graduates’ negotiations of age (ing) and employability. Journal of Education and Work. (ahead-of-print). doi:10.1080/13639080.2014.939161
122. Simon, M., Houghton, S. M., & Aquino, K. (2000). Cognitive biases, risk perception, and venture formation: How individuals decide to start companies. Journal of Business Venturing,15(2), 113–134. doi:10.1016/S0883-9026(98)00003-2.
123. Solomon, G., Fuchs, K., Werner, A., & Wallau, F. (2008). Entrepreneurship education in Germany and Sweden: What role do different school systems play? Journal of small business and enterprise development,15(2), 365–381. doi:10.1108/14626000810871736.
124. Srivastava, S., John, O. P., Gosling, S. D., & Potter, J. (2003). Development of personality in early and middle adulthood: Set like plaster or persistent change? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,84(5), 1041. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.84.5.1041.
125. Super, D. E. (1980). A life-span, life-space approach to career development. Journal of Vocational Behavior,16(3), 282–298. doi:10.1016/0001-8791(80)90056-1.
126. Taylor, M. Z., & Wilson, S. (2012). Does culture still matter?: The effects of individualism on national innovation rates. Journal of Business Venturing,27(2), 234–247. doi:10.1016/j.jbusvent.2010.10.001.
127. Terracciano, A., McCrae, R. R., Brant, L. J., & Costa, P. T, Jr. (2005). Hierarchical linear modeling analyses of the NEO-PI-R scales in the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging. Psychology and Aging,20(3), 493. doi:10.1037/0882-7974.20.3.493.
128. Tornikoski, E. T., & Kautonen, T. (2009). Enterprise as sunset career? Entrepreneurial intentions in the ageing population. International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Small Business,8(2), 278–291. doi:10.1504/IJESB.2009.024381.
129. Twenge, J. M., & Campbell, W. K. (2001). Age and birth cohort differences in self-esteem: A cross-temporal meta-analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Review,5(4), 321–344. doi:10.1207/S15327957PSPR0504_3.
130. Van Auken, H., Fry, F. L., & Stephens, P. (2006). The influence of role models on entrepreneurial intentions. Journal of Developmental Entrepreneurship,11(02), 157–167. doi:10.1142/S1084946706000349.
131. Verheul, I., Thurik, R., Grilo, I., & van der Zwan, P. (2012). Explaining preferences and actual involvement in self-employment: Gender and the entrepreneurial personality. Journal of Economic Psychology,33(2), 325–341. doi:10.1016/j.joep.2011.02.009.
132. Vygotsky, L. S. (1962). Thought and word. In E. Hanf- mann & G. Vakar (Eds.), Thought and language (pp. 119–153). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. doi:10.1037/11193-007.
133. Wong, O. M. (2005). Gender and intimate caregiving for the elderly in Hong Kong. Journal of Aging Studies,19(3), 375–391.
134. Wood, M. S., Williams, D. W., & Gregoire, D. A. (2012). The road to riches? A model of the cognitive processes and inflection points underpinning entrepreneurial action. Advances in entrepreneurship, firm emergence and growth,14, 207–252.
135. Wu, S., Matthews, & Dagher, G. K. (2007). Need for achievement, business goals, and entrepreneurial persistence. Management Research News,30(12), 928–941. doi:10.1108/01409170710833358.
136. Wyrwich, M. (2013). Can socioeconomic heritage produce a lost generation with regard to entrepreneurship? Journal of Business Venturing,28(5), 667–682. doi:10.1016/j.jbusvent.2012.09.001.
137. You, J., Fung, H. H., & Isaacowitz, D. M. (2009). Age differences in dispositional optimism: A cross-cultural study. European Journal of Ageing,6(4), 247–252. doi:10.1007/s10433-009-0130-z.
138. Zampetakis, L. A. (2008). The role of creativity and proactivity on perceived entrepreneurial desirability. Thinking Skills and Creativity,3(2), 154–162. doi:10.1016/j.tsc.2008.07.002.
139. Zhang, X., Fung, H. H., Stanley, J. T., Isaacowitz, D. M., & Zhang, Q. (2014). Thinking more holistically as we grow older? Results from different tasks in two cultures. Culture and Brain,2(2), 109–121. doi:10.1007/s40167-014-0018-4.
140. Zhao, H., & Seibert, S. E. (2006). The big five personality dimensions and entrepreneurial status: A meta-analytical review. Journal of Applied Psychology,91(2), 259. doi:10.1016/j.jbusvent.2006.02.002.