Effects of Coastal Urbanization on Salt-Marsh Faunal Assemblages in the Northern Gulf of Mexico

Marine and Coastal Fisheries

Volumn 6, Issue 1, 2014, Pages 89-107

  Lowe, Michael R ^a,b   Peterson, Mark S ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN MISSISSIPPI   (United States)

^b WOODS HOLE OCEANOGRAPHIC INSTITUTION   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BREVOORTIA PATRONUS; CALLINECTES SAPIDUS; DECAPODA (CRUSTACEA); FARFANTEPENAEUS AZTECUS; LEIOSTOMUS XANTHURUS; PALAEMONETES;

EID: 84949117432     PISSN: None     EISSN: 19425120     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/19425120.2014.893467     Document Type: Article

References (120)

1. Able, K.W., D.N. Vivian, G. Petruzzelli, and S.M. Hagan. 2012. Connectivity among salt marsh subhabitats: residency and movements of the Mummichog (Fundulus heteroclitus). Estuaries and Coasts 35:743–753.
2. Anderson, M.J., R.N. Gorley, and K.R. Clarke. 2008. PERMANOVA+ for PRIMER: guide to software and statistical methods. PRIMER-E, Plymouth, UK.
3. Atkinson, L.J., J.G. Field, and L. Hutchings. 2011. Effects of demersal trawling along the west coast of southern Africa: multivariate analysis of benthic assemblages. Marine Ecology Progress Series 430:241–255.
4. Baltz, D.M., C.F. Rakocinski, and J. W. Fleeger. 1993. Microhabitat use by marsh-edge fishes in a Louisiana estuary. Environmental Biology of Fishes 36:109–126.
5. Beach, D. 2002. Coastal sprawl: the effects of urban design on aquatic ecosystems in the United States. Pew Oceans Commission, Arlington, Virginia.
6. Bilkovic, D.M., and M.M. Roggero. 2008. Effects of coastal development on nearshore estuarine nekton communities. Marine Ecology Progress Series 358:27–39.
7. Bilkovic, D.M., M.M. Roggero, C.H. Hershner, and K.H. Havens. 2006. Influence of land use on macrobenthic communities in nearshore estuarine habitats. Estuaries and Coasts 29:1185–1195.
8. Boesch, D.F., and R.E. Turner. 1984. Dependence of fishery species on salt marshes—the role of food and refuge. Estuaries 7:460–468.
9. Boström, C., S.J. Pittman, C. Simenstad, and R.T. Kneib. 2011. Seascape ecology of coastal biogenic habitats: advances, gaps, and challenges. Marine Ecology Progress Series 427:191–217.
10. Bretsch, K., and D.M. Allen. 2006. Tidal migrations of nekton in salt marsh intertidal creeks. Estuaries and Coasts 29:474–486.
11. Bromberg-Gedan, K., B.R. Sillman, and M.D. Bertness. 2009. Centuries of human-driven change in salt marsh ecosystems. Annual Reviews in Marine Science 1:117–141.
12. Browder, J.A., L.N. May Jr., A. Rosenthal, J.G. Gosseling, and R.H. Baumann. 1989. Modeling future trends in wetland loss and brown shrimp production in Louisiana using thematic mapper imagery. Remote Sensing of the Environment 28:45–59.
13. Browne, M.A., and M.G. Chapman. 2011. Ecologically informed engineering reduces loss of intertidal biodiversity on artificial shorelines. Environmental Science and Technology 45:8204–8207.
14. Brush, G. 2009. Historical land use, nitrogen, and coastal eutrophication: a paleoecological perspective. Estuaries and Coasts 32:18–28.
15. Bulger, A.J., P.B. Hayden, M.E. Monaco, D.M. Nelson, and M.G. McCormick-Ray. 1993. Biologically based estuarine salinity zones derived from multivariate analysis. Estuaries 16:311–322.
16. Bulleri, F., and M.G. Chapman. 2010. The introduction of coastal infrastructure as a driver of change in marine environments. Journal of Applied Ecology 47:26–35.
17. Chapman, M.G., and A.J. Underwood. 2011. Evaluation of ecological engineering of “armoured” shorelines to improve their value as habitat. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 400:301–313.
18. Chesney, E.J., D.M. Baltz, and R.G. Thomas. 2000. Louisiana estuarine and coastal fisheries and habitats: perspectives from a fish's eye view. Ecological Applications 10:350–366.
19. Chitty, J.D., and K.W. Able. 2004. Habitat use, movements and growth of the Sheepshead Minnow, Cyprinodon variegatus, in a restored salt marsh in Delaware Bay. Bulletin of the New Jersey Academy of Sciences 49:1–8.
20. Clarke, K.R., and R.N. Gorley. 2006. PRIMER v6: user manual/tutorial. PRIMER-E, Plymouth, UK.
21. Crossett, K.M., T.J. Culliton, P.C. Wiley, and T.R. Goodspeed. 2004. Population trends along the coastal United States: 1980–2008. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Washington, D.C.
22. Dame, J.K., and R.R. Christian. 2007. Evaluation of ecological network analysis: validation of output. Ecological Modeling 210:327–338.
23. Dean, H.K. 2008. The use of polychaetes (Annelida) as indicator species of marine pollution. Revista de Biologia Tropical 56:11–38.
24. Deegan, L.A. 1990. Effects of estuarine environmental conditions on population dynamic of young-of-the-year Gulf Menhaden. Marine Ecology Progress Series 68:195–205.
25. Deegan, L.A. 1993. Nutrient and energy transport between estuaries and coastal marine ecosystems by fish migrations. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 50:74–79.
26. Deegan, L.A., B.J. Peterson, and R. Portier. 1990. Stable isotopes and cellulase activity as evidence for detritus as a food source for juvenile Gulf Menhaden. Estuaries 13:14–19.
27. Dobson, J.E., E.A. Bright, R.L. Ferguson, D.W. Field, L.L. Wood, K.D. Haddad, J. Iredale, J.R. Jensen, V.V. Klemas, R.J. Orth, and J.P. Thomas. 1995. NOAA Coastal change analysis program (C-CAP): guidance for regional implementation. NOAA Technical Report NMFS 123.
28. Duarte, C.M., W.C. Dennison, R.J. Orth, and T.J. B. Carruthers. 2008. The charisma of coastal ecosystems: addressing the imbalance. Estuaries and Coasts 31:233–238.
29. Eggleston, D.B., L.L. Etherington, and W.E. Ellis. 1998. Organism response to habitat patchiness: species and habitat-dependent recruitment of decapod crustaceans. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 223:111–132.
30. Ellis, W.L., and S.S. Bell. 2013. Intertidal fish communities may make poor indicators of environmental quality: lessons from a study of mangrove habitat modification. Ecological Indicators 24:421–430.
31. Engle, V.D., J.K. Summers, and G.R. Gaston. 1994. A benthic index of environmental condition of Gulf of Mexico estuaries. Estuaries 17:372–384.
32. European Environmental Agency. 2006. The changing face of Europe's coastal areas. Publications Office of the European Union, European Environmental Agency Report 6/2006, Luxembourg.
33. Fahrig, L. 2003. Effects of habitat fragmentation on biodiversity. Annual Reviews in Ecology Evolution and Systematics 34:487–515.
34. Field, A. 2005. Discovering statistics using SPSS, 2nd edition. Sage Publications, London.
35. Fletcher, D.J., and A.J. Underwood. 2002. How to cope with negative estimates of components of variances in ecological field studies. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 273:89–95.
36. Fonseca, M.S., W.J. Kenworthy, and G.W. Thayer. 1997. Guidelines for mitigation and restoration of seagrasses in the United States and adjacent waters. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Coastal Ocean Program Decision Analysis Series 12, Silver Spring, Maryland.
37. Frisk, M.G., T.J. Miller, R.J. Latour, and S.J. D. Martell. 2011. Assessing biomass gains from marsh restoration in Delaware Bay using Ecopath with Ecosim. Ecological Modeling 222:190–200.
38. Goodsell, P.J. 2009. Diversity in fragments of artificial and natural marine habitats. Marine Ecology Progress Series 384:23–31.
39. Goto, D., and W.G. Wallace. 2010. Altered feeding habits and strategies of a benthic forage fish (Fundulus heteroclitus) in chronically polluted tidal salt marshes. Marine Environmental Research 72:75–88.
40. Green, B.C., D.J. Smith, and G.J. C. Underwood. 2012. Habitat connectivity and spatial complexity differentially affect mangrove and salt marsh assemblages. Marine Ecology Progress Series 466:177–192.
41. Green, S.B., and N.L. Salkind. 2008. Using SPSS for Windows and Macintosh: analyzing and understanding data, 5th edition. Pearson Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.
42. Guest, M., and R.M. Connolly. 2006. Movement of carbon among estuarine habitats: the influence of salt marsh patch size. Marine Ecology Progress Series 310:15–24.
43. Haas, H.L., C.J. Freeman, J.M. Logan, L. Deegan, and E.F. Gaines. 2009. Examining Mummichog growth and movement: are some individuals making intra-season migrations to optimize growth? Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 369:8–16.
44. Haas H.L., K.A. Rose, B. Fry, T.J. Minello, and L.P. Rozas. 2005. Brown shrimp on the edge: Linking habitats to survival using an individual-based simulation model. Ecological Applications 14:1232–1247.
45. Hendon, J.R., M.S. Peterson, and B.H. Comyns. 2000. Spatio-temporal distribution of larval Gobiosoma bosc in waters adjacent to natural and altered marsh-edge habitats of Mississippi coastal waters. Bulletin of Marine Science 66:143–156.
46. Hines, A.H. 2007. Ecology of juvenile and adult blue crabs. Pages 565–654 in V.S. Kennedy and L.E. Cronin, editors. The blue crab: Callinectes sapidus. Maryland Sea Grant College Program, UM-SG-TS-2007-01, College Park.
47. Hines, A.H., A.M. Haddo, and L.A. Wiechert. 1990. Guild structure and foraging impacts of blue crabs and epibenthic fish in a subestuary of Chesapeake Bay. Marine Ecology Progress Series 67:105–126.
48. Holland, A.F., D.M. Sanger, C.P. Gawle, S.B. Lerberg, M.S. Santiago, G.H. M. Riekerk, L.E. Zimmerman, and G.I. Scott. 2004. Linkages between tidal creek ecosystems and the landscape and demographic attributes of their watersheds. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 298:151–178.
49. Hurlbert, S.H. 1984. Pseudoreplication and the design of ecological field experiments. Ecological Monographs 54:187–211.
50. Hurlbert, S.H., and M.D. White. 1993. Experiments with freshwater invertebrate zooplanktivores: quality of statistical analyses. Bulletin of Marine Science 53:128–153.
51. Jaeger, J.A. G. 2000. Landscape division, splitting index, and effect mesh size: new measures of landscape fragmentation. Landscape Ecology 15:115–130.
52. Kemp, W.M., W.R. Boynto, J.E. Adolf, D.F. Boesch, W.C. Boicour, G. Brush, J.C. Cornwell, T.R. Fisher, P.M. Gilbert, J.D. Hagy, L.W. Harding, E.D. Houde, D.G. Kimmel, W.D. Miller, R.I. E. Newell, M.R. Roman, E.M. Smith, and J.C. Stevenson. 2005. Eutrophication of Chesapeake Bay: historical trends and ecological interactions. Marine Ecology Progress Series 303:1–29.
53. Key, P.B., E.F. Wirth, and M.H. Fulton. 2006. A review of grass shrimp, Palaemonetes spp., as a bioindicator of anthropogenic impacts. Environmental Bioindicators 1:115–128.
54. King, R.S., A.H. Hines, F.D. Craige, and S. Grap. 2005. Regional, watershed and local correlates of blue crab and bivalve abundances in subestuaries of Chesapeake Bay, USA. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 319:101–116.
55. Kneib, R.T. 1994. Spatial pattern, spatial scale, and feeding in fishes. Pages 169–185 in D.J. Strouder, K.L. Fresh, and F.J. Fellers, editors. Theory and application in fish feeding ecology. University of South Carolina Press, Columbia.
56. Kneib, R.T. 1995. Behaviour separates potential and realized effects of decapod crustaceans in salt marsh communities. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 193:239–256.
57. Kneib, R.T. 2000. Salt marsh ecoscapes and production transfers by estuarine nekton in the southeastern United States. Pages 267–292 in M.P. Weinstein and D.J. Kreeger, editors. Concepts and controversies in tidal marsh ecology. Kluwer, Dordrecht, The Netherlands.
58. Lathrop, R.G., M.B. Cole, and R.D. Showalter. 2000. Quantifying the habitat structure and spatial pattern of New Jersey (USA) salt marshes under different management regimes. Wetlands Ecology and Management 8:163–172.
59. Layman, C.A., D.A. Arrington, R.B. Langerhans, and B.R. Sillman. 2004. Degree of fragmentation affects fish assemblage structure in Andros Island (Bahamas) estuaries. Caribbean Journal of Science 40:232–244.
60. Layman, C.A., J.P. Quattrochi, C.M. Peyer, and J.E. Allgeier. 2007. Niche with collapse in a resilient top predator following ecosystem fragmentation. Ecology Letters 10:937–944.
61. Lerberg, S.B., A.F. Holland, and D.M. Sanger. 2000. Responses of tidal creek macrobenthic communities to the effects of watershed development. Estuaries 23:838–853.
62. Living Shoreline Steering Committee. 2008. Preface Pages vii–xiv in S. Y. Erdle, J. L. D. Davis, and K. G. Sellner, editors. Management, policy, science and engineering of nonstructural erosion control in the Chesapeake Bay: proceedings of the 2006 living shoreline summit. Chesapeake Research Consortium, Publication 08-164, Gloucester Point, Virginia.
63. Long, W.C., J.N. Grow, J.E. Maoris, and A.H. Hines. 2011. Effects of anthropogenic shoreline hardening and invasion by Phragmites australis on habitat quality for juvenile blue crabs (Callinectes sapidus). Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 409:215–222.
64. Lopez, J.D., M.S. Peterson, E.T. Lang, and A.M. Charbonnet. 2010. Linking habitat and life history for conservation of the rare Saltmarsh Topminnow Fundulus jenkinsi: morphometrics, reproduction, and trophic ecology. Endangered Species Research 12:141–155.
65. Lowe, M.R., W. Wu, M.S. Peterson, N.J. Brown-Peterson, W.T. Slack, and P.J. Schofield. 2012. Survival, growth and reproduction of non-native Nile Tilapia. II. Fundamental niche projections and invasion potential in the northern Gulf of Mexico. PLoS ONE [online serial] 7:e41580.
66. Mallin, M.A., and M.J. Lewitus. 2004. The importance of tidal creek ecosystems. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 298:145–149.
67. McGarigal, K., S.A. Cushman, M.C. Neel, and E. Ene. 2002. FRAGSTATS: spatial pattern analysis program for categorical maps. University of Massachusetts, Amherst. Available: http://www.umass.edu/landeco/research/fragstats/fragstats.html. (April 2014).
68. McTigue, T.A., and R.J. Zimmerman. 1991. Carnivory versus herbivory in juvenile Penaeus setiferus (Linnaeus) and Penaeus aztecus (Ives). Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 151:1–16.
69. Mee, L. 2011. Between the devil and the deep blue sea: the coastal zone in an era of globalization. Estuarine and Coastal Shelf Science 96:1–8.
70. Meyer, D.L., and M.H. Posey. 2009. Effects of life history strategy on fish distribution and use of estuarine salt marsh and shallow-water flat habitats. Estuaries and Coasts 32:797–812.
71. Meynecke, J.O., S.Y. Lee, and N.C. Duke. 2008. Linking spatial metrics and fish catch reveals the importance of coastal wetland connectivity to inshore fisheries in Queensland, Australia. Biological Conservation 141:981–996.
72. Minello, T.J., K.W. Able, M.P. Weinstein, C.G. Hays. 2003. Salt marshes as nurseries for nekton: testing hypotheses on density, growth and survival through meta-analysis. Marine Ecology Progress Series 246:39–59.
73. Minello, T.J., and L.P. Rozas. 2002. Nekton in Gulf coast wetlands: fine-scale distributions, landscape patterns, and restoration implications. Ecological Applications 112:441–455.
74. Minello, T.J., L.P. Rozas, P.A. Caldwell, and C. Liese. 2012. A comparison of salt marsh construction costs with the value of exported shrimp production. Wetlands 32:791–799.
75. Minello, T.J., R.J. Zimmerman, and E.X. Martinez. 1989. Mortality of young brown shrimp Penaeus aztecus in estuarine nurseries. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 118:693–708.
76. Mock, C.R. 1967. Natural and altered estuarine habitats of penaeid shrimp. Proceedings of the Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute 19:86–98.
77. Moilanen, A., and M. Nieminen. 2002. Simple connectivity measures in spatial ecology. Oikos 95:147–152.
78. Moy, L.D., and L.A. Levin. 1991. Are Spartina marshes a replaceable resource? A functional approach to evaluation of marsh creation efforts. Estuaries 14:1–16.
79. Nemerson, D.M., and K.W. Able. 2004. Spatial patterns in diet and distribution of juveniles of four fish species in Delaware Bay marsh creeks: factors influencing fish abundance. Marine Ecology Progress Series 276:249–262.
80. O’Connell, M.T., C.D. Franze, E.A. Spalding, and M.A. Poirrier. 2005. Biological resources of the Louisiana coast: part 2. Coastal animals and habitat associations. Journal of Coastal Research 44:146–161.
81. Odum, W.E. 1970. Insidious alteration of the estuarine environment. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 99:836–847.
82. Odum, W.E. 1982. Environmental degradation and the tyranny of small decisions. BioScience 32:728–729.
83. Odum, W.E. 1984. Dual-gradient concept of detritus transport and processing in estuaries. Bulletin of Marine Science 35:510–521.
84. Partyka, M.L., and M.S. Peterson. 2008. Habitat quality and salt-marsh species assemblages along an anthropogenic estuarine landscape. Journal of Coastal Research 24:1570–1581.
85. Peterson, G.W., and R.E. Turner. 1994. The value of salt marsh edge vs. interior as habitat for fish and decapod crustaceans in a Louisiana tidal marsh. Estuaries 17:235–262.
86. Peterson, M.S. 2003. Conceptual view of environmental-habitat-production linkages in tidal-river estuaries. Reviews in Fisheries Science 11:291–313.
87. Peterson, M.S., B.H. Comyns, J.R. Hendon, P.J. Bond, and G.A. Duff. 2000. Habitat use by early life-history stages of fishes and crustaceans along a changing estuarine landscape: differences between natural and altered shoreline sites. Wetlands Ecology and Management 8:209–219.
88. Peterson, M.S., and M.R. Lowe. 2009. Implications of cumulative impacts to estuarine and marine habitat quality for fish and invertebrate resources. Reviews in Fisheries Science 17:505–523.
89. Peterson, M.S., and M.L. Partyka. 2006. Baseline mapping of Phragmites australis (common reed) in three coastal Mississippi estuarine basins. Southeastern Naturalist 5:747–756.
90. Peterson, M.S., M.R. Weber, M.L. Partyka, and S.T. Ross. 2007. Integrating in situ quantitative geographic information tools and size-specific laboratory-based growth zones in a dynamic river-mouth estuary. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 17:602–618.
91. Rakocinski, C.F., S.S. Brown, G.R. Gaston, R.W. Heard, W.W. Walker, and J.K. Summers. 1997. Macrobenthic responses to natural and contaminant-related gradients in northern Gulf of Mexico estuaries. Ecological Applications 7:1278–1298.
92. Roth, B.M., K.A. Rose, L.P. Rozas, and T.J. Minello. 2008. Relative influence of habitat fragmentation and inundation on brown shrimp Farfantepenaeus aztecus production in northern Gulf of Mexico salt marshes. Marine Ecology Progress Series 359:185–202.
93. Rountree, R.A., and K.W. Able. 2007. Spatial and temporal habitat use patterns for salt marsh nekton: implications for ecological function. Aquatic Ecology 41:15–45.
94. Rowe, C.L., and W.A. Dunson. 1995. Individual and interactive effects of salinity and initial fish density on a salt marsh assemblage. Marine Ecology Progress Series 128:271–278.
95. Rozas, L.P. 1995. Hydroperiod and its influence on nekton use of the salt marsh: a pulsing ecosystem. Estuaries 18:579–590.
96. Rozas, L.P., and M.W. LaSalle. 1990. A comparison of the diets of Gulf Killifish, Fundulus grandis Baird and Girard, entering and leaving a Mississippi brackish marsh. Estuaries 13:332–336.
97. Rozas, L.P., C.C. McIvor, and W.E. Odum. 1988. Intertidal rivulets and creekbanks: corridors between tidal creeks and marshes. Marine Ecology Progress Series 47:303–307.
98. Rozas, L.P., and T.J. Minello. 1998. Nekton use of salt marsh, seagrass, and nonvegetated habitats in a south Texas (USA) estuary. Bulletin of Marine Science 63:481–501.
99. Rozas, L.P., and R.J. Zimmerman. 2000. Small-scale patterns of nekton use among marsh and adjacent shallow nonvegetated areas of the Galveston Bay estuary, Texas. Marine Ecology Progress Series 193:217–239.
100. Sanger, D.M., A.F. Holland, and G.I. Scott. 1999a. Tidal creek and salt marsh sediments in South Carolina coastal estuaries I. Distribution of trace metals. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 37:445–457.
101. Sanger, D.M., A.F. Holland, and G.I. Scott. 1999b. Tidal creek and salt marsh sediments in South Carolina coastal estuaries I. Distribution of organic contaminants. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 37:458–471.
102. Sarda, R., I. Valiela, and K. Forman. 1996. Decadal shifts in a salt marsh macroinfaunal community in response to sustained long-term experimental nutrient enrichment. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 205:63–81.
103. Saucerman, S.E., and L.A. Deegan. 1999. Lateral and cross-channel movement of young-of-the-year Winter Flounder (Pseudopleuronectes americanus) in Waquoit Bay, Massachusetts. Estuaries 14:440–446.
104. Seitz, R.D., R.N. Lipcius, N.H. Olmstead, M.S. Seebo, and D.M. Lambert. 2006. Influence of shallow-water habitats and shoreline development on abundance, biomass, and diversity of benthic prey and predators in Chesapeake Bay. Marine Ecology Progress Series 326:11–27.
105. Simenstad, C.A., B.J. Nightengale, R.M. Thom, and D.K. Shreffer. 1999. Impacts of ferry terminals on juvenile salmon migrating along Puget Sound shorelines, phase I: synthesis of state of knowledge. Washington State Department of Transportation, Final Research Report, Research Project T9903, Task A2, Seattle.
106. Swann, L. 2008. The use of living shorelines to mitigate the effects of storm events on Dauphin Island, Alabama, USA. Pages 47–57 in K.D. McLaughlin, editor. Mitigating impacts of natural hazards on fishery ecosystems. American Fisheries Society, Symposium, 64, Bethesda, Maryland.
107. Thom, R.M., G.W. Williams, and H.L. Diefenderfer. 2005. Balancing the need to develop coastal areas with the desire for an ecologically functioning coastal environment: is net ecosystem improvement possible? Restoration Ecology 13:193–203.
108. Thomas, J.P. 1995. Remote sensing and relating coastal development to living marine resources and their habitats. Natural Areas Journal 15:21–36.
109. Thrush, S.F., J. Halliday, J.E. Hewitt, and A.M. Lohrer. 2008. The effect of habitat loss, fragmentation, and community homogenization on resilience in estuaries. Ecological Applications 18:12–21.
110. Turner, M.G., R.H. Gardner, and R.V. O’Neill. 2001. Landscape ecology in theory and practice: pattern and process. Springer, New York.
111. Valentine-Rose, L., C.A. Layman, D.A. Arrington, and A.L. Rypel. 2007. Habitat fragmentation decreases fish secondary production in Bahamian tidal creeks. Bulletin of Marine Science 80:863–877.
112. Van Dolah, R.F., J.F. Hyland, A.F. Holland, J.S. Rosen, and T.R. Snoots. 1999. A benthic index of biological integrity for assessing habitat quality in estuaries of the southeastern United States. Marine Environmental Research 48:269–283.
113. Van Dolah, R.F., G.H. M. Riekerk, D.C. Bergquist, J. Felber, D.E. Chestnut, and A.F. Holland. 2008. Estuarine habitat quality reflects urbanization at large spatial scales in South Carolina's coastal zone. Science of the Total Environment 390:142–154.
114. Vivian, D.N., C.F. Rakosinski, and M.S. Peterson. 2012. Habitat function of a restored salt marsh: post-larval Gulf Killifish as a sentinel. Pages 57–74 in S.J. Jordan, editor. Estuaries: classification, ecology, and human impacts. Nova Science Publishers, Hauppauge, New York.
115. Wannamaker, C.M., and J.A. Rice. 2000. Effects of hypoxia on movements and behavior of selected estuarine organisms from the southeastern United States. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 249:145–163.
116. Weinstein, M.P. 1979. Shallow marsh habitats as primary nurseries for fishes and shellfish, Cape Fear River, North Carolina. U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service Fishery Bulletin 77:339–357.
117. Weinstein, J.E., and D.M. Sanger. 2003. Comparative tolerances of two estuarine annelids in fluroanthene under normoxic and moderately hypoxic conditions. Marine Environmental Research 56:637–648.
118. Weinstein, M.P., L. Scott, S.P. O’Neil, R.C. Siegfried II, and S.T. Szedlmayer. 1984. Population dynamics of Spot, Leiostomus xanthurus, in polyhaline tidal creeks of the York River estuary, Virginia. Estuaries 7:444–450.
119. Wiens, J.A. 1989. Spatial scaling in ecology. Functional Ecology 3:385–439.
120. Wolcott, T.G., and A.H. Hines. 1990. Ultrasonic telemetry of small-scale movements and microhabitat selection by molting blue crabs (Callinectes sapidus). Bulletin of Marine Science 46:83–94.