Challenges and Opportunities in the Management of Cardiovascular Risk Factors in Youth With Type 1 Diabetes: Lifestyle and Beyond

Current Diabetes Reports

Volumn 15, Issue 12, 2015, Pages

  Katz, Michelle ^a   Giani, Elisa ^a   Laffel, Lori ^a  

^a JOSLIN DIABETES CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

Cardiovascular; Diabetes type 1; Lifestyle; Pediatrics

Indexed keywords

ANTIHYPERTENSIVE AGENT; C REACTIVE PROTEIN; CHOLESTEROL; DIPEPTIDYL CARBOXYPEPTIDASE INHIBITOR; HEMOGLOBIN A1C; HIGH DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN CHOLESTEROL; HYDROXYMETHYLGLUTARYL COENZYME A REDUCTASE INHIBITOR; LOW DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN CHOLESTEROL; METFORMIN; PROTEIN KINASE C; TRIACYLGLYCEROL;

ARTERIAL STIFFNESS; ARTERY INTIMA PROLIFERATION; ATHEROSCLEROSIS; BLOOD PRESSURE REGULATION; BODY COMPOSITION; BODY MASS; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CARDIOVASCULAR MORTALITY; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; COHORT ANALYSIS; CORONARY ARTERY DILATATION; CORONARY ARTERY DISEASE; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG SAFETY; DYSLIPIDEMIA; ENDOTHELIAL DYSFUNCTION; GLYCEMIC CONTROL; GLYCOSYLATION; HIGH RISK PATIENT; HUMAN; HYPERLIPIDEMIA; HYPERTENSION; INSULIN DEPENDENT DIABETES MELLITUS; INSULIN RESISTANCE; KIDNEY DISEASE; LIPID ANALYSIS; LONGITUDINAL STUDY; OBESITY; OXIDATIVE STRESS; PATHOGENESIS; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PEDIATRICS; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; REVIEW; SELF CARE; SMOKING; SYSTOLIC BLOOD PRESSURE; ADOLESCENT; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES; CHILD; COMPLICATION; HYPERGLYCEMIA; LIFESTYLE; RISK FACTOR;

ADOLESCENT; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES; CHILD; DIABETES MELLITUS, TYPE 1; HUMANS; HYPERGLYCEMIA; HYPERTENSION; LIFE STYLE; OBESITY; RISK FACTORS;

EID: 84945941646     PISSN: 15344827     EISSN: 15390829     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s11892-015-0692-4     Document Type: Review

References (107)

1. Epidemiology of Diabetes Interventions and Complications (EDIC) Research Group. Epidemiology of Diabetes Interventions and Complications (EDIC). Design, implementation, and preliminary results of a long-term follow-up of the Diabetes Control and Complications Trial cohort. Diabetes Care. 1999;22(1):99–111.
2. Soedamah-Muthu SS, Chaturvedi N, Witte DR, et al. Relationship between risk factors and mortality in type 1 diabetic patients in Europe: the EURODIAB Prospective Complications Study (PCS). Diabetes Care. 2008;31(7):1360–6.
3. Lind M, Svensson AM, Kosiborod M, et al. Glycemic control and excess mortality in type 1 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2014;371(21):1972–82. This study provides data on the excess risk of death according to the level of glycemic control from the Swedish National Diabetes Register.
4. Berenson GS. Childhood risk factors predict adult risk associated with subclinical cardiovascular disease. The Bogalusa Heart Study. Am J Cardiol. 2002;90(10C):3L–7.
5. Eltayeb AA, Ahmad FA, Sayed DM, Osama AM. Subclinical vascular endothelial dysfunctions and myocardial changes with type 1 diabetes mellitus in children and adolescents. Pediatr Cardiol. 2014;35(6):965–74.
6. Harjutsalo V, Maric-Bilkan C, Forsblom C, Groop PH. Impact of sex and age at onset of diabetes on mortality from ischemic heart disease in patients with type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2014;37(1):144–8. This study demonstrates the impact of gender as a risk factor for ischemic heart disease.
7. Orchard TJ, Nathan DM, Zinman B, et al. Association between 7 years of intensive treatment of type 1 diabetes and long-term mortality. JAMA. 2015;313(1):45–53. This study investigates the impact of insulin intensive therapy on mortality in the long-term follow-up of the DCCT cohort.
8. Nathan DM, Cleary PA, Backlund JY, et al. Intensive diabetes treatment and cardiovascular disease in patients with type 1 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2005;353(25):2643–53.
9. Orchard TJ, Costacou T, Kretowski A, Nesto RW. Type 1 diabetes and coronary artery disease. Diabetes Care. 2006;29(11):2528–38.
10. Fullerton B, Jeitler K, Seitz M, et al. Intensive glucose control versus conventional glucose control for type 1 diabetes mellitus. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014;2, CD009122.
11. Torffvit O, Lovestam-Adrian M, Agardh E, Agardh CD. Nephropathy, but not retinopathy, is associated with the development of heart disease in type 1 diabetes: a 12-year observation study of 462 patients. Diabet Med. 2005;22(6):723–9.
12. Secrest AM, Becker DJ, Kelsey SF, LaPorte RE, Orchard TJ. Cause-specific mortality trends in a large population-based cohort with long-standing childhood-onset type 1 diabetes. Diabetes. 2010;59(12):3216–22.
13. Groop PH, Thomas MC, Moran JL, et al. The presence and severity of chronic kidney disease predicts all-cause mortality in type 1 diabetes. Diabetes. 2009;58(7):1651–8.
14. Daniels M, Dubose SN, Maahs DM, et al. Factors associated with microalbuminuria in 7,549 children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes in the T1D Exchange Clinic Registry. Diabetes Care. 2013;36(9):2639–45.
15. Chiang JL, Kirkman MS, Laffel LM, Peters AL. Type 1 diabetes through the life span: a position statement of the American Diabetes Association. Diabetes Care. 2014;37(7):2034–54.
16. International Society for Pediatric and Adolescent Diabetes (ISPAD). ISPAD consensus guidelines for the management of type 1 diabetes mellitus in children and adolescents. 2000. Ed.PGF Swift.Publ.Medforum, Zeist, Netherlands.
17. Wood JR, Miller KM, Maahs DM, et al. Most youth with type 1 diabetes in the T1D Exchange Clinic Registry do not meet American Diabetes Association or International Society for Pediatric and Adolescent Diabetes clinical guidelines. Diabetes Care. 2013;36(7):2035–7.
18. Petitti DB, Klingensmith GJ, Bell RA, et al. Glycemic control in youth with diabetes: the SEARCH for Diabetes in Youth Study. J Pediatr. 2009;155(5):668–72.
19. Gerstl EM, Rabl W, Rosenbauer J, et al. Metabolic control as reflected by HbA1c in children, adolescents and young adults with type-1 diabetes mellitus: combined longitudinal analysis including 27,035 patients from 207 centers in Germany and Austria during the last decade. Eur J Pediatr. 2008;167(4):447–53.
20. Clements MA, Foster NC, Maahs DM, et al. Hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) changes over time among adolescent and young adult participants in the T1D Exchange Clinic Registry. Pediatr Diabetes. 2015;12:1579–82.
21. Miller KM, Beck RW, Bergenstal RM, et al. Evidence of a strong association between frequency of self-monitoring of blood glucose and hemoglobin A1c levels in T1D Exchange Clinic Registry participants. Diabetes Care. 2013;36(7):2009–14.
22. Skupien J, Warram JH, Smiles A, et al. Improved glycemic control and risk of ESRD in patients with type 1 diabetes and proteinuria. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2014;25(12):2916–25.
23. Laffel LM, Vangsness L, Connell A, et al. Impact of ambulatory, family-focused teamwork intervention on glycemic control in youth with type 1 diabetes. J Pediatr. 2003;142(4):409–16.
24. Katz ML, Volkening LK, Butler DA, Anderson BJ, Laffel LM. Family-based psychoeducation and Care Ambassador intervention to improve glycemic control in youth with type 1 diabetes: a randomized trial. Pediatr Diabetes. 2014;15(2):142–50.
25. Hood KK, Rohan JM, Peterson CM, Drotar D. Interventions with adherence-promoting components in pediatric type 1 diabetes: meta-analysis of their impact on glycemic control. Diabetes Care. 2010;33(7):1658–64.
26. Bergenstal RM, Tamborlane WV, Ahmann A, et al. Effectiveness of sensor-augmented insulin-pump therapy in type 1 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2010;363(4):311–20.
27. Dauber A, Corcia L, Safer J, et al. Closed-loop insulin therapy improves glycemic control in children aged <7 years: a randomized controlled trial. Diabetes Care. 2013;36(2):222–7.
28. Hovorka R, Elleri D, Thabit H, et al. Overnight closed-loop insulin delivery in young people with type 1 diabetes: a free-living, randomized clinical trial. Diabetes Care. 2014;37(5):1204–11.
29. Guy J, Ogden L, Wadwa RP, et al. Lipid and lipoprotein profiles in youth with and without type 1 diabetes: the SEARCH for Diabetes in Youth case-control study. Diabetes Care. 2009;32(3):416–20.
30. Maahs DM, Dabelea D, D’Agostino Jr RB, et al. Glucose control predicts 2-year change in lipid profile in youth with type 1 diabetes. J Pediatr. 2013;162(1):101–7. This epidemiological study describes how changes in glucose control impact changes in the lipid profile in a large cohort of youth with T1D participating in the SEARCH study.
31. Reh CM, Mittelman SD, Wee CP, et al. A longitudinal assessment of lipids in youth with type 1 diabetes. Pediatr Diabetes. 2011;12(4 Pt 2):365–71.
32. Expert panel on integrated guidelines for cardiovascular health and risk reduction in Children and Adolescents. Expert panel on integrated guidelines for cardiovascular health and risk reduction in children and adolescents: summary report. Pediatrics. 2011;128 Suppl 5:S213–56.
33. American Diabetes Association. Standards of medical care in diabetes—2015. Diabetes Care. 2015;38 Suppl 1:S5–87.
34. Kavey RE, Daniels SR, Lauer RM, et al. American Heart Association guidelines for primary prevention of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease beginning in childhood. Circulation. 2003;107(11):1562–6.
35. Orchard TJ, Forrest KY, Kuller LH, Becker DJ. Lipid and blood pressure treatment goals for type 1 diabetes: 10-year incidence data from the Pittsburgh Epidemiology of Diabetes Complications Study. Diabetes Care. 2001;24(6):1053–9.
36. Obarzanek E, Kimm SY, Barton BA, et al. Long-term safety and efficacy of a cholesterol-lowering diet in children with elevated low-density lipoprotein cholesterol: seven-year results of the Dietary Intervention Study in Children (DISC). Pediatrics. 2001;107(2):256–64.
37. Kelishadi R, Hashemipour M, Mohammadifard N, Alikhassy H, Adeli K. Short- and long-term relationships of serum ghrelin with changes in body composition and the metabolic syndrome in prepubescent obese children following two different weight loss programmes. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2008;69(5):721–9.
38. Eagle TF, Gurm R, Smith CA, et al. A middle school intervention to improve health behaviors and reduce cardiac risk factors. Am J Med. 2013;126(10):903–8.
39. Savoye M, Nowicka P, Shaw M, et al. Long-term results of an obesity program in an ethnically diverse pediatric population. Pediatrics. 2011;127(3):402–10.
40. Wong K, Potter A, Mulvaney S, et al. Pediatric endocrinologists’ management of children with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2010;33(3):512–4.
41. Kershnar AK, Daniels SR, Imperatore G, et al. Lipid abnormalities are prevalent in youth with type 1 and type 2 diabetes: the SEARCH for Diabetes in Youth Study. J Pediatr. 2006;149(3):314–9.
42. Margeirsdottir HD, Larsen JR, Brunborg C, Overby NC, Dahl-Jorgensen K. High prevalence of cardiovascular risk factors in children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes: a population-based study. Diabetologia. 2008;51(4):554–61.
43. Stone NJ, Robinson JG, Lichtenstein AH, et al. 2013 ACC/AHA guideline on the treatment of blood cholesterol to reduce atherosclerotic cardiovascular risk in adults: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. Circulation. 2014;129(25 Suppl 2):S1–45.
44. Adolescent Type 1 Diabetes Cardio-renal Intervention Trial (AdDIT) BMC Pediatr 2009; 9:79.
45. Adolescent Type 1 Diabetes Intervention Trial (AdDIT). 2015. doi: http://www.addit-trial.org/latest.html. Accessed: 9 Jul 2015.
46. Frohlich-Reiterer EE, Rosenbauer J, Bechtold-Dalla PS, et al. Predictors of increasing BMI during the course of diabetes in children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes: data from the German/Austrian DPV multicentre survey. Arch Dis Child. 2014;99(8):738–43. This study addresses risk factors for the increase in BMI during the course of diabetes.
47. Hanas R, Laffel L, Domenger C, et al. Lifestyle factors associated with glycemic control in youth with type 1 diabetes (T1D): the Global TEENs Study. Pediatr Diabetes. 2014;19:20.
48. Liu LL, Lawrence JM, Davis C, et al. Prevalence of overweight and obesity in youth with diabetes in USA: the SEARCH for Diabetes in Youth Study. Pediatr Diabetes. 2010;11(1):4–11.
49. Lake A, Townshend T. Obesogenic environments: exploring the built and food environments. J R Soc Promot Health. 2006;126(6):262–7.
50. Libman IM, Pietropaolo M, Arslanian SA, LaPorte RE, Becker DJ. Changing prevalence of overweight children and adolescents at onset of insulin-treated diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2003;26(10):2871–5.
51. American Diabetes Association. Implications of the Diabetes Control and Complications Trial. Diabetes. 1993;42(11):1555–8.
52. Purnell JQ, Zinman B, Brunzell JD. The effect of excess weight gain with intensive diabetes mellitus treatment on cardiovascular disease risk factors and atherosclerosis in type 1 diabetes mellitus: results from the Diabetes Control and Complications Trial/Epidemiology of Diabetes Interventions and Complications Study (DCCT/EDIC) study. Circulation. 2013;127(2):180–7. This study demonstrates the associations of excess weight gain with sustained increases in central obesity, insulin resistance, dyslipidemia, and blood pressure as well as more extensive atherosclerosis during the EDIC follow-up study.
53. Baskaran C, Volkening LK, Diaz M, Laffel LM. A decade of temporal trends in overweight/obesity in youth with type 1 diabetes after the Diabetes Control and Complications Trial. Pediatr Diabetes. 2015;16(4):263–70. This study demonstrates stable trends of overweight/obesity in youth with T1D over a 10-year period.
54. Mayer-Davis EJ, Nichols M, Liese AD, et al. Dietary intake among youth with diabetes: the SEARCH for Diabetes in Youth Study. J Am Diet Assoc. 2006;106(5):689–97.
55. Mehta SN, Volkening LK, Quinn N, Laffel LM. Intensively managed young children with type 1 diabetes consume high-fat, low-fiber diets similar to age-matched controls. Nutr Res. 2014;34(5):428–35. This study compared dietary intake in youth with T1D versus general US youth, demonstrating that young children with T1D consume high-fat, low-fiber diets compared to the general population.
56. Patton SR, Dolan LM, Powers SW. Dietary adherence and associated glycemic control in families of young children with type 1 diabetes. J Am Diet Assoc. 2007;107(1):46–52.
57. Mehta SN, Haynie DL, Higgins LA, et al. Emphasis on carbohydrates may negatively influence dietary patterns in youth with type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2009;32(12):2174–6.
58. Minges KE, Magliano DJ, Owen N, et al. Associations of strength training with impaired glucose metabolism: the AusDiab Study. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2013;45(2):299–303.
59. Nansel TR, Laffel LM, Haynie DL, et al. Improving dietary quality in youth with type 1 diabetes: randomized clinical trial of a family-based behavioral intervention. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. 2015;12:58.
60. Markowitz JT, Schultz AT, Cousineau TM, Franko DL, Laffel LMB. Mobile health (mHealth) intervention using text messaging aimed at healthy lifestyles for youth with diabetes (DM): a pilot randomized controlled trial (RCT).J Diabetes Sci Technol. 2014;8(5):1029–34.
61. Pivovarov JA, Taplin CE, Riddell MC. Current perspectives on physical activity and exercise for youth with diabetes. Pediatr Diabetes. 2015;16(4):242–55. This review highlights benefits and barriers of physical activity in youth with T1D and presents a new algorithm for the management of insulin therapy during sport activity.
62. Quirk H, Blake H, Tennyson R, Randell TL, Glazebrook C. Physical activity interventions in children and young people with type 1 diabetes mellitus: a systematic review with meta-analysis. Diabet Med. 2014;31(10):1163–73.
63. Colberg SR, Sigal RJ, Fernhall B, et al. Exercise and type 2 diabetes: the American College of Sports Medicine and the American Diabetes Association: joint position statement. Diabetes Care. 2010;33(12):e147–67.
64. Tamborlane WV. Triple jeopardy: nocturnal hypoglycemia after exercise in the young with diabetes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2007;92(3):815–6.
65. Taplin CE, Cobry E, Messer L, et al. Preventing post-exercise nocturnal hypoglycemia in children with type 1 diabetes. J Pediatr. 2010;157(5):784–8.
66. Riddell MC, Milliken J. Preventing exercise-induced hypoglycemia in type 1 diabetes using real-time continuous glucose monitoring and a new carbohydrate intake algorithm: an observational field study. Diabetes Technol Ther. 2011;13(8):819–25.
67. Garg S, Brazg RL, Bailey TS, et al. Reduction in duration of hypoglycemia by automatic suspension of insulin delivery: the in-clinic ASPIRE study. Diabetes Technol Ther. 2012;14(3):205–9.
68. Polsky S, Ellis SL. Obesity, insulin resistance, and type 1 diabetes mellitus. Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes. 2015;22(4):277–82.
69. Libman I, Miller KM, DiMeglio LA, et al. Metformin as an adjunct therapy does not improve glycemic control among overweight adolescents with type 1 diabetes (T1D) [abstract]. Endocr Rev. 2015;36(2 (Suppl)):OR01–5.
70. Rodriguez BL, Dabelea D, Liese AD, et al. Prevalence and correlates of elevated blood pressure in youth with diabetes mellitus: the SEARCH for Diabetes in Youth Study. J Pediatr. 2010;157(2):245–51.
71. Nambam B, Dubose SN, Nathan BM et al. Therapeutic inertia: underdiagnosed and undertreated hypertension in children participating in the T1D Exchange Clinic Registry. Pediatr Diabetes 2014. This study demonstrates the under-recognition and under-treatment of elevated blood pressure in youth with T1D being managed at pediatric diabetes centers.
72. Hansen ML, Gunn PW, Kaelber DC. Underdiagnosis of hypertension in children and adolescents. JAMA. 2007;298(8):874–9.
73. Pedrosa C, Oliveira BM, Albuquerque I, et al. Markers of metabolic syndrome in obese children before and after 1-year lifestyle intervention program. Eur J Nutr. 2011;50(6):391–400.
74. Short KR, Blackett PR, Gardner AW, Copeland KC. Vascular health in children and adolescents: effects of obesity and diabetes. Vasc Health Risk Manag. 2009;5:973–90.
75. Jarvisalo MJ, Putto-Laurila A, Jartti L, et al. Carotid artery intima-media thickness in children with type 1 diabetes. Diabetes. 2002;51(2):493–8.
76. Juonala M, Viikari JS, Kahonen M, et al. Childhood levels of serum apolipoproteins B and A-I predict carotid intima-media thickness and brachial endothelial function in adulthood: the cardiovascular risk in young Finns study. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2008;52(4):293–9.
77. Widlansky ME, Gokce N, Keaney Jr JF, Vita JA. The clinical implications of endothelial dysfunction. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2003;42(7):1149–60.
78. Halcox JP, Donald AE, Ellins E, et al. Endothelial function predicts progression of carotid intima-media thickness. Circulation. 2009;119(7):1005–12.
79. Jarvisalo MJ, Raitakari M, Toikka JO, et al. Endothelial dysfunction and increased arterial intima-media thickness in children with type 1 diabetes. Circulation. 2004;109(14):1750–5.
80. Bertoluci MC, Ce GV, da Silva AM, et al. Endothelial dysfunction as a predictor of cardiovascular disease in type 1 diabetes. World J Diabetes. 2015;6(5):679–92.
81. Schalkwijk CG, Stehouwer CD. Vascular complications in diabetes mellitus: the role of endothelial dysfunction. Clin Sci (Lond). 2005;109(2):143–59.
82. Haller MJ, Stein J, Shuster J, et al. Peripheral artery tonometry demonstrates altered endothelial function in children with type 1 diabetes. Pediatr Diabetes. 2007;8(4):193–8.
83. King GL, Loeken MR. Hyperglycemia-induced oxidative stress in diabetic complications. Histochem Cell Biol. 2004;122(4):333–8.
84. Bakker W, Eringa EC, Sipkema P, van Hinsbergh VW. Endothelial dysfunction and diabetes: roles of hyperglycemia, impaired insulin signaling and obesity. Cell Tissue Res. 2009;335(1):165–89.
85. Faienza MF, Acquafredda A, Tesse R, et al. Risk factors for subclinical atherosclerosis in diabetic and obese children. Int J Med Sci. 2013;10(3):338–43.
86. Maftei O, Pena AS, Sullivan T, et al. Early atherosclerosis relates to urinary albumin excretion and cardiovascular risk factors in adolescents with type 1 diabetes: Adolescent Type 1 Diabetes Cardio-renal Intervention Trial (AdDIT). Diabetes Care. 2014;37(11):3069–75. This study demonstrates the correlation between high urinary albumin excretion and early atherosclerosis detected by aortic intima-media thickness in youth with T1D.
87. Cohn JN, Quyyumi AA, Hollenberg NK, Jamerson KA. Surrogate markers for cardiovascular disease: functional markers. Circulation. 2004;109(25 Suppl 1):IV31–46.
88. Laurent S, Cockcroft J, Van BL, et al. Expert consensus document on arterial stiffness: methodological issues and clinical applications. Eur Heart J. 2006;27(21):2588–605.
89. Vlachopoulos C, Aznaouridis K, Stefanadis C. Prediction of cardiovascular events and all-cause mortality with arterial stiffness: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2010;55(13):1318–27.
90. Shah AS, Wadwa RP, Dabelea D, et al. Arterial stiffness in adolescents and young adults with and without type 1 diabetes: the SEARCH CVD study. Pediatr Diabetes. 2015;16(5):367–74.
91. Haller MJ, Samyn M, Nichols WW, et al. Radial artery tonometry demonstrates arterial stiffness in children with type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2004;27(12):2911–7.
92. Palombo C, Kozakova M, Morizzo C, et al. Circulating endothelial progenitor cells and large artery structure and function in young subjects with uncomplicated type 1 diabetes. Cardiovasc Diabetol. 2011;10:88.
93. Ce GV, Rohde LE, da Silva AM, et al. Endothelial dysfunction is related to poor glycemic control in adolescents with type 1 diabetes under 5 years of disease: evidence of metabolic memory. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2011;96(5):1493–9.
94. Ceriello A, Esposito K, Ihnat M, Thorpe J, Giugliano D. Long-term glycemic control influences the long-lasting effect of hyperglycemia on endothelial function in type 1 diabetes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2009;94(8):2751–6.
95. Franklin VL, Khan F, Kennedy G, Belch JJ, Greene SA. Intensive insulin therapy improves endothelial function and microvascular reactivity in young people with type 1 diabetes. Diabetologia. 2008;51(2):353–60.
96. Tonstad S, Joakimsen O, Stensland-Bugge E, et al. Risk factors related to carotid intima-media thickness and plaque in children with familial hypercholesterolemia and control subjects. Arterioscler, Thromb, Vasc Biol. 1996;16(8):984–91.
97. Margeirsdottir HD, Stensaeth KH, Larsen JR, Brunborg C, Dahl-Jorgensen K. Early signs of atherosclerosis in diabetic children on intensive insulin treatment: a population-based study. Diabetes Care. 2010;33(9):2043–8.
98. Lamotte C, Iliescu C, Libersa C, Gottrand F. Increased intima-media thickness of the carotid artery in childhood: a systematic review of observational studies. Eur J Pediatr. 2011;170(6):719–29.
99. Aggoun Y. Obesity, metabolic syndrome, and cardiovascular disease. Pediatr Res. 2007;61(6):653–9.
100. Caballero AE, Bousquet-Santos K, Robles-Osorio L, et al. Overweight Latino children and adolescents have marked endothelial dysfunction and subclinical vascular inflammation in association with excess body fat and insulin resistance. Diabetes Care. 2008;31(3):576–82.
101. Aggoun Y, Szezepanski I, Bonnet D. Noninvasive assessment of arterial stiffness and risk of atherosclerotic events in children. Pediatr Res. 2005;58(2):173–8.
102. Kapiotis S, Holzer G, Schaller G, et al. A proinflammatory state is detectable in obese children and is accompanied by functional and morphological vascular changes. Arterioscler, Thromb, Vasc Biol. 2006;26(11):2541–6.
103. Tounian P, Aggoun Y, Dubern B, et al. Presence of increased stiffness of the common carotid artery and endothelial dysfunction in severely obese children: a prospective study. Lancet. 2001;358(9291):1400–4.
104. Pena AS, Wiltshire E, MacKenzie K, et al. Vascular endothelial and smooth muscle function relates to body mass index and glucose in obese and nonobese children. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2006;91(11):4467–71.
105. Reinehr T, Kiess W, de Sousa G, Stoffel-Wagner B, Wunsch R. Intima media thickness in childhood obesity: relations to inflammatory marker, glucose metabolism, and blood pressure. Metabolism. 2006;55(1):113–8.
106. Hilliard ME, Wu YP, Rausch J, Dolan LM, Hood KK. Predictors of deteriorations in diabetes management and control in adolescents with type 1 diabetes. J Adolesc Health. 2013;52(1):28–34.
107. Willi SM, Miller KM, DiMeglio LA, et al. Racial-ethnic disparities in management and outcomes among children with type 1 diabetes. Pediatrics. 2015;135(3):424–34.