The multiple fates of sinking particles in the North Atlantic Ocean

Global Biogeochemical Cycles

Volumn 29, Issue 9, 2015, Pages 1471-1494

  Collins, James R ^a   Edwards, Bethanie R ^a   Thamatrakoln, Kimberlee ^b   Ossolinski, Justin E ^a   Ditullio, Giacomo R ^c   Bidle, Kay D ^b   Doney, Scott C ^a   Van Mooy, Benjamin A S ^a  

^a WOODS HOLE OCEANOGRAPHIC INSTITUTION   (United States)

^b RUTGERS UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c Department of Teacher Education and Department of Sociology and Anthropology   (United States)

Author keywords

bacterial growth efficiency; bacterial respiration; carbon cycle; microbial respiration; particle flux

Indexed keywords

BACTERIUM; CARBON CYCLE; CARBON FLUX; ENZYME ACTIVITY; MESOPELAGIC ZONE; MICROBIAL COMMUNITY; ORGANIC MATTER; PARTICULATE FLUX; REMINERALIZATION; RESPIRATION; SOLUBILIZATION; WATER COLUMN;

ATLANTIC OCEAN; ATLANTIC OCEAN (NORTH);

BACTERIA (MICROORGANISMS);

EID: 84945196043     PISSN: 08866236     EISSN: 19449224     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/2014GB005037     Document Type: Article

References (104)

1. Alldredge, A. L., (2000), Interstitial dissolved organic carbon (DOC) concentrations within sinking marine aggregates and their potential contribution to carbon flux, Limnol. Oceanogr., 45 (6), 1245-1253.
2. Alldredge, A. L., T. C. Granata, C. C. Gotschalk, and, T. D. Dickey, (1990), The physical strength of marine snow and its implications for particle disaggregation in the ocean, Limnol. Oceanogr., 35 (7), 1415-1428.
3. Alonso-Saez, L., et al., (2008), Factors controlling the year-round variability in carbon flux through bacteria in a coastal marine system, Ecosystems, 11 (3), 397-409, doi: 10.1007/S10021-008-9129-0.
4. Anderson, L. A., and, J. L. Sarmiento, (1994), Redfield ratios of remineralization determined by nutrient data-analysis, Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 8 (1), 65-80, doi: 10.1029/93GB03318.
5. Anderson, T. R., and, K. W. Tang, (2010), Carbon cycling and POC turnover in the mesopelagic zone of the ocean: Insights from a simple model, Deep Sea Res., Part II, 57 (16), 1581-1592, doi: 10.1016/j.dsr2.2010.02.024.
6. Aranguren-Gassis, M., P. Serret, E. Fernández, J. L. Herrera, J. F. Domínguez, V. Pérez, and, J. Escanez, (2012), Balanced plankton net community metabolism in the oligotrophic North Atlantic subtropical gyre from Lagrangian observations, Deep Sea Res., Part I, 68, 116-122, doi: 10.1016/j.dsr.2012.06.004.
7. Azam, F., (1998), Microbial control of oceanic carbon flux: The plot thickens, Science, 280 (5364), 694-696, doi: 10.1126/science.280.5364.694.
8. Azam, F., and, F. Malfatti, (2007), Microbial structuring of marine ecosystems, Nat. Rev. Microbiol., 5 (10), 782-791.
9. Azam, F., D. C. Smith, G. F. Steward, and, Å. Hagström, (1994), Bacteria-organic matter coupling and its significance for oceanic carbon cycling, Microb. Ecol., 28 (2), 167-179, doi: 10.1007/BF00166806.
10. Bach, L. T., U. Riebesell, S. Sett, S. Febiri, P. Rzepka, and, K. G. Schulz, (2012), An approach for particle sinking velocity measurements in the 3-400 μm size range and considerations on the effect of temperature on sinking rates, Mar. Biol., 159 (8), 1853-1864, doi: 10.1007/S00227-012-1945-2.
11. Bendtsen, J., C. Lundsgaard, M. Middelboe, and, D. Archer, (2002), Influence of bacterial uptake on deep-ocean dissolved organic carbon, Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 16 (4), 1127, doi: 10.1029/2002GB001947.
12. Berelson, W. M., (2002), Particle settling rates increase with depth in the ocean, Deep Sea Res., Part II, 49 (1-3), 237-251.
13. Bidle, K. D., M. Manganelli, and, F. Azam, (2002), Regulation of oceanic silicon and carbon preservation by temperature control on bacteria, Science, 298 (5600), 1980-1984, doi: 10.1126/science.1076076.
14. Boyd, P. W., and, T. W. Trull, (2007), Understanding the export of biogenic particles in oceanic waters: Is there consensus?, Prog. Oceanogr., 72 (4), 276-312, doi: 10.1016/J.Pocean.2006.10.007.
15. Buesseler, K. O., and, P. W. Boyd, (2009), Shedding light on processes that control particle export and flux attenuation in the twilight zone of the open ocean, Limnol. Oceanogr., 54 (4), 1210-1232, doi: 10.4319/lo.2009.54.4.1210.
16. Buesseler, K. O., et al., (2007a), An assessment of the use of sediment traps for estimating upper ocean particle fluxes, J. Mar. Res., 65 (3), 345-416.
17. Buesseler, K. O., et al., (2007b), Revisiting carbon flux through the ocean's twilight zone, Science, 316 (5824), 567-570, doi: 10.1126/science.1137959.
18. Burd, A. B., (2013), Modeling particle aggregation using size class and size spectrum approaches, J. Geophys. Res. Oceans, 118, 3431-3443, doi: 10.1002/Jgrc.20255.
19. Burd, A. B., et al., (2010), Assessing the apparent imbalance between geochemical and biochemical indicators of meso- and bathypelagic biological activity: What the is wrong with present calculations of carbon budgets?, Deep Sea Res., Part II, 57 (16), 1557-1571, doi: 10.1016/J.Dsr2.2010.02.022.
20. Calvo-Díaz, A., L. Díaz-Pérez, L. Á. Suárez, X. A. G. Morán, E. Teira, and, E. Marañõn, (2011), Decrease in the autotrophic-to-heterotrophic biomass ratio of picoplankton in oligotrophic marine waters due to bottle enclosure, Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 77 (16), 5739-5746, doi: 10.1128/aem.00066-11.
21. Carlson, C. A., H. W. Ducklow, and, A. F. Michaels, (1994), Annual flux of dissolved organic carbon from the euphotic zone in the northwestern Sargasso Sea, Nature, 371 (6496), 405-408.
22. Carlson, C. A., N. R. Bates, H. W. Ducklow, and, D. A. Hansell, (1999), Estimation of bacterial respiration and growth efficiency in the Ross Sea, Antarctica, Aquat. Microb. Ecol., 19 (3), 229-244, doi: 10.3354/ame019229.
23. Carlson, C. A., D. A. Hansell, N. B. Nelson, D. A. Siegel, W. M. Smethie, S. Khatiwala, M. M. Meyers, and, E. Halewood, (2010), Dissolved organic carbon export and subsequent remineralization in the mesopelagic and bathypelagic realms of the North Atlantic basin, Deep Sea Res., Part II, 57 (16), 1433-1445, doi: 10.1016/j.dsr2.2010.02.013.
24. Chin-Leo, G., and, D. L. Kirchman, (1988), Estimating bacterial production in marine waters from the simultaneous incorporation of thymidine and leucine, Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 54 (8), 1934-1939.
25. Close, H. G., S. R. Shah, A. E. Ingalls, A. F. Diefendorf, E. L. Brodie, R. L. Hansman, K. H. Freeman, L. I. Aluwihare, and, A. Pearson, (2013), Export of submicron particulate organic matter to mesopelagic depth in an oligotrophic gyre, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 110 (31), 12,565-12,570, doi: 10.1073/pnas.1217514110.
26. Dam, H. G., C. A. Miller, and, S. H. Jonasdottir, (1993), The trophic role of mesozooplankton at 47-degrees-N, 20-degrees-W during the North-Atlantic Bloom Experiment, Deep Sea Res., Part II, 40 (1-2), 197-212, doi: 10.1016/0967-0645(93)90013-D.
27. del Giorgio, P. A., J. J. Cole, and, A. Cimbleris, (1997), Respiration rates in bacteria exceed phytoplankton production in unproductive aquatic systems, Nature, 385 (6612), 148-151.
28. DiTullio, G., and, M. E. Geesey, (2003), Photosynthetic pigments in marine algae and bacteria, in Encyclopedia of Environmental Microbiology, vol. 5, edited by, G. Bitton, pp. 2453-2470, John Wiley, New York, doi: 10.1002/0471263397.env185.
29. Duarte, C. M., A. Regaudie-de-Giroux, J. M. Arrieta, A. Delgado-Huertas, and, S. Agustí, (2013), The oligotrophic ocean is heterotrophic, Annu. Rev. Mar. Sci., 5, 551-569, doi: 10.1146/annurev-marine-121211-172337.
30. Ducklow, H. W., and, S. C. Doney, (2013), What is the metabolic state of the oligotrophic ocean? A debate, Annu. Rev. Mar. Sci., 5, 525-533, doi: 10.1146/annurev-marine-121211-172331.
31. Ducklow, H. W., and, S. M. Hill, (1985), Tritiated-thymidine incorporation and the growth of heterotrophic bacteria in warm core rings, Limnol. Oceanogr., 30 (2), 260-272.
32. Ducklow, H. W., D. L. Kirchman, H. L. Quinby, C. A. Carlson, and, H. G. Dam, (1993), Stocks and dynamics of bacterioplankton carbon during the spring bloom in the eastern North Atlantic Ocean, Deep Sea Res., Part II, 40 (1-2), 245-263, doi: 10.1016/0967-0645(93)90016-G.
33. Edwards, B. R., C. M. Reddy, R. Camilli, C. A. Carmichael, K. Longnecker, and, B. A. S. Van Mooy, (2011), Rapid microbial respiration of oil from the Deepwater Horizon spill in offshore surface waters of the Gulf of Mexico, Environ. Res. Lett., 6 (3), 03530, doi: 10.1088/1748-9326/6/3/035301.
34. Fenchel, T., (1970), Studies on the decomposition of organic detritus derived from the turtle grass Thalassia testudinum, Limnol. Oceanogr., 15, 14-20.
35. Fischer, G., and, G. Karakas, (2009), Sinking rates and ballast composition of particles in the Atlantic Ocean: Implications for the organic carbon fluxes to the deep ocean, Biogeosciences, 6 (1), 85-102.
36. 234Th as a tracer of particle flux and POC export in the northern North Sea during a coccolithophore bloom, Deep Sea Res., Part II, 49 (15), 2965-2977, doi: 10.1016/S0967-0645(02)00066-8.
37. Furnas, M. J., (2002), Measuring the growth rates of phytoplankton in natural populations, in Pelagic Ecology Methodology, edited by, D. V. S. Rao, pp. 221-249, A. A. Balkema, Lisse, Netherlands.
38. Geider, R. J., (1997), Photosynthesis or planktonic respiration?, Nature, 388 (6638), 132.
39. Giering, S. L. C., et al., (2014), Reconciliation of the carbon budget in the ocean's twilight zone, Nature, 507 (7493), 480-483, doi: 10.1038/nature13123.
40. Grossart, H. P., and, M. Simon, (1998), Bacterial colonization and microbial decomposition of limnetic organic aggregates (lake snow), Aquat. Microb. Ecol., 15 (2), 127-140, doi: 10.3354/Ame015127.
41. Hansell, D. A., C. A. Carlson, D. J. Repeta, and, R. Schlitzer, (2009), Dissolved organic matter in the ocean: A controversy stimulates new insights, Oceanography, 22 (4), 202-211.
42. Honjo, S., J. Dymond, R. Collier, and, S. J. Manganini, (1995), Export production of particles to the interior of the equatorial Pacific Ocean during the 1992 EqPac experiment, Deep Sea Res., Part II, 42 (2-3), 831-870, doi: 10.1016/0967-0645(95)00034-N.
43. Hoppe, H.-G., K. Gocke, R. Koppe, and, C. Begler, (2002), Bacterial growth and primary production along a north-south transect of the Atlantic Ocean, Nature, 416 (6877), 168-171.
44. Iversen, M. H., and, H. Ploug, (2010), Ballast minerals and the sinking carbon flux in the ocean: Carbon-specific respiration rates and sinking velocity of marine snow aggregates, Biogeosciences, 7 (9), 2613-2624, doi: 10.5194/bg-7-2613-2010.
45. Jackson, G. A., and, A. B. Burd, (1998), Aggregation in the marine environment, Environ. Sci. Technol., 32 (19), 2805-2814, doi: 10.1021/es980251w.
46. Kiørboe, T., (2001), Formation and fate of marine snow: Small-scale processes with large-scale implications, Sci. Mar., 65, 57-71.
47. Kiørboe, T., and, G. A. Jackson, (2001), Marine snow, organic solute plumes, and optimal chemosensory behavior of bacteria, Limnol. Oceanogr., 46 (6), 1309-1318.
48. Kiørboe, T., H.-P. Grossart, H. Ploug, and, K. Tang, (2002), Mechanisms and rates of bacterial colonization of sinking aggregates, Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 68 (8), 3996-4006, doi: 10.1128/aem.68.8.3996-4006.2002.
49. Kirchman, D., (2001), Measuring bacterial biomass production and growth rates from leucine incorporation in natural aquatic environments, in Methods in Microbiology, edited by, J. H. Paul, pp. 227-237, Academic, St. Petersburg, Fla., doi: 10.1016/S0580-9517(01)30047-8.
50. Knappertsbusch, M., and, G. J. A. Brummer, (1995), A sediment trap investigation of sinking coccolithophorids in the North Atlantic, Deep Sea Res., Part I, 42 (7), 1083-1109, doi: 10.1016/0967-0637(95)00036-6.
51. Lam, P. J., S. C. Doney, and, J. K. B. Bishop, (2011), The dynamic ocean biological pump: Insights from a global compilation of particulate organic carbon, CaCO3, and opal concentration profiles from the mesopelagic, Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 25, GB3009, doi: 10.1029/2010GB003868.
52. Lamborg, C. H., K. O. Buesseler, J. Valdes, C. H. Bertrand, R. Bidigare, S. Manganini, S. Pike, D. Steinberg, T. Trull, and, S. Wilson, (2008), The flux of bio- and lithogenic material associated with sinking particles in the mesopelagic "twilight zone" of the northwest and North Central Pacific Ocean, Deep Sea Res., Part II, 55 (14-15), 1540-1563, doi: 10.1016/j.dsr2.2008.04.011.
53. Lancelot, C., and, G. Billen, (1984), Activity of heterotrophic bacteria and its coupling to primary production during the spring phytoplankton bloom in the southern bight of the North Sea, Limnol. Oceanogr., 29 (4), 721-730.
54. Landry, M. R., et al., (1997), Iron and grazing constraints on primary production in the central equatorial Pacific: An EqPac synthesis, Limnol. Oceanogr., 42 (3), 405-418.
55. Lehahn, Y., et al., (2014), Decoupling physical from biological processes to assess the impact of viruses on a mesoscale algal bloom, Curr. Biol., 24 (17), 2041-2046, doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2014.07.046.
56. Lemée, R., E. Rochelle-Newall, F. Van Wambeke, M.-D. Pizay, P. Rinaldi, and, J.-P. Gattuso, (2002), Seasonal variation of bacterial production, respiration and growth efficiency in the open NW Mediterranean Sea, Aquat. Microb. Ecol., 29 (3), 227-237, doi: 10.3354/ame029227.
57. Le Moigne, F. A. C., et al., (2015), Carbon export efficiency and phytoplankton community composition in the Atlantic sector of the Arctic Ocean, J. Geophys. Res. Oceans, 120, 3896-3912, doi: 10.1002/2015JC010700.
58. Li, W. K. W., P. M. Dickie, W. G. Harrison, and, B. D. Irwin, (1993), Biomass and production of bacteria and phytoplankton during the spring bloom in the western North Atlantic Ocean, Deep Sea Res., Part II, 40 (1-2), 307-327, doi: 10.1016/0967-0645(93)90019-J.
59. Longhurst, A. R., (2010), Ecological Geography of the Sea, 2nd ed., 560 pp., Elsevier Sci., Academic Press, Burlington, Mass.
60. Lutz, M., R. Dunbar, and, K. Caldeira, (2002), Regional variability in the vertical flux of particulate organic carbon in the ocean interior, Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 16 (3), 1037, doi: 10.1029/2000GB001383.
61. Marsay, C. M., R. J. Sanders, S. A. Henson, K. Pabortsava, E. P. Achterberg, and, R. S. Lampitt, (2015), Attenuation of sinking particulate organic carbon flux through the mesopelagic ocean, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 112 (4), 1089-1094, doi: 10.1073/pnas.1415311112.
62. Martin, J. H., G. A. Knauer, D. M. Karl, and, W. W. Broenkow, (1987), VERTEX: Carbon cycling in the northeast Pacific, Deep Sea Res., Part A, 34 (2), 267-285, doi: 10.1016/0198-0149(87)90086-0.
63. Martin, P., R. S. Lampitt, M. J. Perry, R. Sanders, C. Lee, and, E. D'Asaro, (2011), Export and mesopelagic particle flux during a North Atlantic spring diatom bloom, Deep Sea Res., Part I, 58 (4), 338-349, doi: 10.1016/J.Dsr.2011.01.006.
64. Mayor, D. J., R. Sanders, S. L. C. Giering, and, T. R. Anderson, (2014), Microbial gardening in the ocean's twilight zone: Detritivorous metazoans benefit from fragmenting, rather than ingesting, sinking detritus, BioEssays, 36 (12), 1132-1137, doi: 10.1002/bies.201400100.
65. McDonnell, A. M. P., (2011), Marine Particle Dynamics: Sinking Velocities, Size Distributions, Fluxes, and Microbial Degradation Rates, 210 pp., Mass. Inst. of Technol., Cambridge.
66. McDonnell, A. M. P., and, K. O. Buesseler, (2010), Variability in the average sinking velocity of marine particles, Limnol. Oceanogr., 55 (5), 2085-2096, doi: 10.4319/Lo.2010.55.5.2085.
67. McDonnell, A. M. P., and, K. O. Buesseler, (2012), A new method for the estimation of sinking particle fluxes from measurements of the particle size distribution, average sinking velocity, and carbon content, Limnol. Oceanogr. Methods, 10, 329-346, doi: 10.4319/Lom.2012.10.329.
68. McDonnell, A. M. P., P. W. Boyd, and, K. O. Buesseler, (2015), Effects of sinking velocities and microbial respiration rates on the attenuation of particulate carbon fluxes through the mesopelagic zone, Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 29, 175-193, doi: 10.1002/2014GB004935.
69. Moore, T. S., M. D. Dowell, and, B. A. Franz, (2012), Detection of coccolithophore blooms in ocean color satellite imagery: A generalized approach for use with multiple sensors, Remote Sens. Environ., 117, 249-263, doi: 10.1016/j.rse.2011.10.001.
70. Najjar, R. G., and, R. F. Keeling, (1997), Analysis of the mean annual cycle of the dissolved oxygen anomaly in the World Ocean, J. Mar. Res., 55 (1), 117-151, doi: 10.1357/0022240973224481.
71. Ohnemus, D. C., and, P. J. Lam, (2014), Cycling of lithogenic marine particles in the US GEOTRACES North Atlantic transect, Deep Sea Res., Part II, doi: 10.1016/j.dsr2.2014.11.019.
72. Ortega-Retuerta, E., C. G. Fichot, K. R. Arrigo, G. L. Van Dijken, and, F. Joux, (2014), Response of marine bacterioplankton to a massive under-ice phytoplankton bloom in the Chukchi Sea (Western Arctic Ocean), Deep Sea Res., Part II, doi: 10.1016/j.dsr2.2014.03.015.
73. Passow, U., A. L. Alldredge, and, B. E. Logan, (1994), The role of particulate carbohydrate exudates in the flocculation of diatom blooms, Deep Sea Res., Part I, 41 (2), 335-357, doi: 10.1016/0967-0637(94)90007-8.
74. Peterson, M. L., S. G. Wakeham, C. Lee, M. A. Askea, and, J. C. Miquel, (2005), Novel techniques for collection of sinking particles in the ocean and determining their settling rates, Limnol. Oceanogr. Methods, 3, 520-532.
75. Ploug, H., and, H. P. Grossart, (2000), Bacterial growth and grazing on diatom aggregates: Respiratory carbon turnover as a function of aggregate size and sinking velocity, Limnol. Oceanogr., 45 (7), 1467-1475.
76. Ploug, H., H.-P. Grossart, F. Azam, and, B. B. Jorgensen, (1999), Photosynthesis, respiration, and carbon turnover in sinking marine snow from surface waters of Southern California Bight: Implications for the carbon cycle in the ocean, Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser., 179, 1-11.
77. Quay, P. D., C. Peacock, K. Björkman, and, D. M. Karl, (2010), Measuring primary production rates in the ocean: Enigmatic results between incubation and non-incubation methods at Station ALOHA, Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 24, GB3014, doi: 10.1029/2009GB003665.
78. Reinthaler, T., H. van Aken, C. Veth, J. Aristegui, C. Robinson, P. J. L. R. Williams, P. Lebaron, and, G. J. Herndl, (2006), Prokaryotic respiration and production in the meso- and bathypelagic realm of the eastern and western North Atlantic basin, Limnol. Oceanogr., 51 (3), 1262-1273.
79. Riley, J. S., R. Sanders, C. Marsay, F. A. C. Le Moigne, E. P. Achterberg, and, A. J. Poulton, (2012), The relative contribution of fast and slow sinking particles to ocean carbon export, Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 26, GB1026, doi: 10.1029/2011GB004085.
80. Robinson, C., and, P. J. B. Williams, (2005), Respiration and its measurement in surface marine waters, in Respiration in Aquatic Ecosystems, edited by, P. del Giorgio, and, P. J. B. Williams, pp. 147-180, Oxford Univ. Press, New York.
81. Sanders, R., et al., (2014), The biological carbon pump in the North Atlantic, Prog. Oceanogr., doi: 10.1016/j.pocean.2014.05.005.
82. Sarmiento, J. L., and, N. Gruber, (2006), Ocean Biogeochemical Dynamics, 528 pp., Princeton Univ. Press, Princeton, N. J.
83. Schmidt, S., J. Harlay, A. V. Borges, S. Groom, B. Delille, N. Roevros, S. Christodoulou, and, L. Chou, (2013), Particle export during a bloom of Emiliania huxleyi in the North-West European continental margin, J. Mar. Syst., 109, S182-S190, doi: 10.1016/j.jmarsys.2011.12.005.
84. Siegel, D. A., E. Fields, and, K. O. Buesseler, (2008), A bottom-up view of the biological pump: Modeling source funnels above ocean sediment traps, Deep Sea Res., Part I, 55 (1), 108-127, doi: 10.1016/j.dsr.2007.10.006.
85. Siegel, D. A., et al., (2014), Export processes in the ocean from remote sensing (EXPORTS), Rep., 101 pp.
86. Simon, M., and, F. Azam, (1989), Protein-content and protein-synthesis rates of planktonic marine bacteria, Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser., 51 (3), 201-213, doi: 10.3354/meps051201.
87. Smith, D. C., M. Simon, A. L. Alldredge, and, F. Azam, (1992), Intense hydrolytic enzyme activity on marine aggregates and implications for rapid particle dissolution, Nature, 359 (6391), 139-142.
88. Stanley, R. H. R., K. O. Buesseler, S. J. Manganini, D. K. Steinberg, and, J. R. Valdes, (2004), A comparison of major and minor elemental fluxes collected in neutrally buoyant and surface-tethered sediment traps, Deep Sea Res., Part I, 51 (10), 1387-1395, doi: 10.1016/j.dsr.2004.05.010.
89. Stanley, R. H. R., S. C. Doney, W. J. Jenkins, and, D. E. Lott III, (2012), Apparent oxygen utilization rates calculated from tritium and helium-3 profiles at the Bermuda Atlantic Time-series Study site, Biogeosciences, 9 (6), 1969-1983, doi: 10.5194/bg-9-1969-2012.
90. Steinberg, D. K., J. S. Cope, S. E. Wilson, and, T. Kobari, (2008a), A comparison of mesopelagic mesozooplankton community structure in the subtropical and subarctic North Pacific Ocean, Deep Sea Res., Part II, 55 (14-15), 1615-1635, doi: 10.1016/j.dsr2.2008.04.025.
91. Steinberg, D. K., B. A. S. Van Mooy, K. O. Buesseler, P. W. Boyd, T. Kobari, and, D. M. Karl, (2008b), Bacterial vs. zooplankton control of sinking particle flux in the ocean's twilight zone, Limnol. Oceanogr., 53 (4), 1327-1338.
92. Stemmann, L., G. A. Jackson, and, D. Ianson, (2004a), A vertical model of particle size distributions and fluxes in the midwater column that includes biological and physical processes-Part I: Model formulation, Deep Sea Res., Part I, 51 (7), 865-884, doi: 10.1016/j.dsr.2004.03.001.
93. Stemmann, L., G. A. Jackson, and, G. Gorsky, (2004b), A vertical model of particle size distributions and fluxes in the midwater column that includes biological and physical processes-Part II: Application to a three year survey in the NW Mediterranean Sea, Deep Sea Res., Part I, 51 (7), 885-908, doi: 10.1016/j.dsr.2004.03.002.
94. Tamburini, C., M. Boutrif, M. Garel, R. R. Colwell, and, J. W. Deming, (2013), Prokaryotic responses to hydrostatic pressure in the ocean-A review, Environ. Microbiol., 15 (5), 1262-1274, doi: 10.1111/1462-2920.12084.
95. Taylor, G. T., and, D. M. Karl, (1991), Vertical fluxes of biogenic particles and associated biota in the eastern North Pacific: Implications for biogeochemical cycling and productivity, Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 5 (3), 289-303, doi: 10.1029/91GB01543.
96. Vardi, A., L. Haramaty, B. A. Van Mooy, H. F. Fredricks, S. A. Kimmance, A. Larsen, and, K. D. Bidle, (2012), Host-virus dynamics and subcellular controls of cell fate in a natural coccolithophore population, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 109 (47), 19,327-19,332, doi: 10.1073/pnas.1208895109.
97. Venrick, E. L., J. R. Beers, and, J. F. Heinbokel, (1977), Possible consequences of containing microplankton for physiological rate measurements, J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol., 26 (1), 55-76.
98. Villa-Alfageme, M., F. de Soto, F. A. C. Le Moigne, S. L. C. Giering, R. Sanders, and, R. García-Tenorio, (2014), Observations and modeling of slow sinking particles in the twilight zone, Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 28, 1327-1342, doi: 10.1002/2014GB004981.
99. 2: Natural Variations Archean to Present, edited by, E. T. Sundquist, and, W. S. Broecker, pp. 99-110, AGU, Washington, D. C., doi: 10.1029/GM032p0099.
100. Warkentin, M., H. M. Freese, U. Karsten, and, R. Schumann, (2007), New and fast method to quantify respiration rates of bacterial and plankton communities in freshwater ecosystems by using optical oxygen sensor spots, Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 73 (21), 6722-6729, doi: 10.1128/aem.00405-07.
101. Westberry, T. K., P. J. L. Williams, and, M. J. Behrenfeld, (2012), Global net community production and the putative net heterotrophy of the oligotrophic oceans, Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 26, GB4019, doi: 10.1029/2011GB004094.
102. Williams, P. J. B., and, J. E. Robertson, (1991), Overall planktonic oxygen and carbon-dioxide metabolisms-The problem of reconciling observations and calculations of photosynthetic quotients, J. Plankton Res., 13, S153-S169.
103. Williams, P. J. B., P. D. Quay, T. K. Westberry, and, M. J. Behrenfeld, (2013), The oligotrophic ocean is autotrophic, Annu. Rev. Mar. Sci., 5, 535-549, doi: 10.1146/annurev-marine-121211-172335.
104. Wright, S. W., and, S. W. Jeffrey, (1987), Fucoxanthin pigment markers of marine-phytoplankton analyzed by HPLC and HPTLC, Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser., 38 (3), 259-266, doi: 10.3354/meps038259.