Quantitative inferences on the locomotor behaviour of extinct species applied to Simocyon batalleri (Ailuridae, Late Miocene, Spain)

Science of Nature

Volumn 102, Issue 5, 2015, Pages

  Fabre, Anne Claire ^a   Salesa, Manuel J ^b,c   Cornette, Raphael ^d   Antón, Mauricio ^c   Morales, Jorge ^c   Peigné, Stéphane ^e  

^a DUKE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF LISBON   (Portugal)

^c MUSEO NACIONAL DE CIENCIAS NATURALES   (Spain)

^d Sorbonne Universités   (France)

^e Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique   (France)

Author keywords

3D geometric morphometrics; Ecomorphology; Forelimb; Locomotion; Palaeobiological inference

Indexed keywords

BONE; CARNIVORE; ECOMORPHOLOGY; EVOLUTIONARY BIOLOGY; FOSSIL RECORD; LOCOMOTION; MIOCENE; MORPHOMETRY; PALEOBIOLOGY; PALEOECOLOGY; QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS; TAXONOMY; THREE-DIMENSIONAL MODELING;

SPAIN;

AILURIDAE;

AILURIDAE; ANATOMY AND HISTOLOGY; ANIMAL; ANIMAL BEHAVIOR; BONE; DISCRIMINANT ANALYSIS; FORELIMB; FOSSIL; MOTOR ACTIVITY; PHYSIOLOGY; SPAIN;

AILURIDAE; ANIMALS; BEHAVIOR, ANIMAL; BONE AND BONES; DISCRIMINANT ANALYSIS; FORELIMB; FOSSILS; MOTOR ACTIVITY; SPAIN;

EID: 84943230394     PISSN: 00281042     EISSN: 14321904     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s00114-015-1280-9     Document Type: Article

References (129)

1. Afflerbaugh K (2002) "Conepatus chinga" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed February 3, 2015 at http://animaldiversity.ummz. umich.edu/accounts/Conepatus-chinga/
2. Aguilar W (2003) "Ictonyx striatus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed February 3, 2015 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich. edu/accounts/Ictonyx
3. Alexander RMN (2006) Principles of animal locomotion. Princeton University Press, New Jersey
4. Alfaro ME, Bolnick DI, Wainwright PC (2005) Evolutionary consequences of many-to-one mapping of jaw morphology to mechanics in labrid fishes. Am Nat 165:E140-54
5. Allegra J, Rath R, Gunderson A (2012) "Enhydra lutris" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed February 3, 2015 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Enhydra-lutris/
6. Andersson K (2003) Locomotor evolution in the Carnivora (Mammalia): evidence from the elbow joint. University of Uppsala, Sweden
7. Andersson K (2004a) Predicting carnivoran body mass from a weight-bearing joint. J Zool 262:161-172
8. Andersson K (2004b) Elbow-joint morphology as a guide to forearm function and foraging behaviour in mammalian carnivores. Zool J Linn Soc 142:91-104
9. Andersson K (2005) Were there pack-hunting canids in the Tertiary, and how can we know? Paleobiology 31:56-72
10. Antón M, Salesa MJ, Morales J, Turner A (2004) First known complete skulls of the scimitar-toothed cat Machairodus aphanistus (Felidae, Carnivora) from the Spanish late Miocene site of Batallones-1. J Vertebr Paleontol 24:957-969
11. Antón M, Salesa MJ, Pastor JF, Peigné S, Morales J (2006) Implications of the functional anatomy of the hand and forearm of Ailurus fulgens (Carnivora, Ailuridae) for the evolution of the 'false-thumb' in pandas. J Anat 209:757-764
12. Argot C (2001) Functional-Adaptive anatomy of the forelimb in the Didelphidae, and the paleobiology of the Paleocene marsupials Mayulestes ferox and Pucadelphys andinus. J Morphol 247:51-79
13. Argot C (2003a) Functional adaptations of the postcranial skeleton of two Miocene borhyaenoids (Mammalia, Metatheria), Borhyaena and Prothylacinus, from South America. Palaeontology 46:1213-1267
14. Argot C (2003b) Functional-Adaptive anatomy of the axial skeleton of some extant marsupials and the paleobiology of the Paleocene Marsupials Mayulestes ferox and Pucadelphys andinus. J Morphol 255:279-300
15. Argot C (2004) Functional-Adaptive features and palaeobiologic implications of the postcranial skeleton of the late Miocene sabretooth borhyaenoid Thylacosmilus atrox (Metatheria). Alcheringa 28: 229-266
16. Baylac M (2012) Rmorph: An R geometric and multivariate morphometrics library. Available from the author: baylac@mnhn.fr
17. Bender J (2001) "Pteronura brasiliensis" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed February 3, 2015 at http://animaldiversity.ummz. umich.edu/accounts/Pteronura-brasiliensis/
18. Berger L (2004) "Bassaricyon gabbii" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed February 3, 2015 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich. edu/accounts/Bas saricyon-gabbii/
19. Biknevicius AR, Mullineaux DR, Clayton HM (2004) Ground reaction forces and limb function in tölting Icelandic horses. Equine Vet J 36: 743-747
20. Bock WJ, von Wahlert G (1965) Adaptation and the form-function complex. Evolution 19:269-299
21. Bookstein FL (1997) Landmark methods for forms without landmarks: morphometrics of group differences in outline shape. Med Image Anal 1:225-243
22. Bookstein FL, Green WDK (2002) Users Manual, EWSH3.19. http://brainmap.stat.washington.edu/edgewarp/
23. Boyer DM, Bloch JI (2008) Evaluating the Mitten-Gliding hypothesis for Paromomyidae and Micromomyidae (Mammalia, BPlesiadapiformes^) using comparative functional morphology of new Paleogene skeletons. In: Sargis EJ, Dagosoto M (eds), Mammalian evolutionary morphology: A tribute to Frederick S. Szalay. Springer, Dordrecht, the Netherlands, pp 233-284
24. Boyer DM, Seiffert ER, Simons EL (2010a) Astragalar morphology of Afradapis, a large adapiform primate from the earliest late Eocene of Egypt. Am J Phys Anthropol 143:383-402
25. Boyer DM, Prasad GVR, Krause DW, Godinot M, Goswami A, Verma O, Flynn JJ (2010b) New postcrania of Deccanolestes from the Late Cretaceous of India and their bearing on the evolutionary and bio-geographic history of euarchontan mammals. Naturwissenschaften 97:365-377
26. Braddy S (2003) "Nasua nasua" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed February 3, 2015 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Nasua-nasua/
27. Brilliant T (2000) "Poecilogale albinucha" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed February 3, 2015 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Poecilogale-Albinucha/
28. Bryant HN, Russell AP (1992) The role of phylogenetic analysis in the inference of unpreserved attributes of extinct taxa. Phil Trans R Soc London B 337:405-418
29. Bryant HN, Seymour KL (1990) Observation and comments on the reliability of muscle reconstruction in fossil vertebrates. J Morphol 206: 109-117
30. Carter K (2004) "Martes foina" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed February 3, 2015 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Martes-foina/
31. Damuth J (1981) Population density and body size in mammals. Nature 290:699-700
32. Damuth J, MacFadden BJ (1990) Body size in mammalian paleobiology: estimation and biological implications. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
33. Davis DD (1964) The giant panda: A morphological study of evolutionary mechanisms. Fieldiana: Zool Mem 3:1-339
34. Demes B, Larson S, Stern JT Jr, Jungers WL, Biknevicius AR, Schmitt D (1994) The kinetics of primate quadrupedalism: BHind limb drive reconsidered. J Hum Evol 26:353-374
35. Dubbelde E (2011) "Mustela eversmanii" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed February 3, 2015 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Mustela-eversmanii/
36. Ercoli MD, Prevosti FJ, Alvarez A (2012) Form and function within a phylogenetic framework: locomotory habits of extant predators and some Miocene Sparassodonta (Metatheria). Zool J Linn Soc 165: 224-251
37. Ewer RF (1973) The carnivores. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY
38. Fabre A-C, Cornette R, Peigné S, Goswami A (2013a) Influence of body mass on the shape of forelimb in musteloid carnivorans. Biol J Linn Soc 110:91-103
39. Fabre A-C, Cornette R, Slater G, Argot C, Peigné S, Goswami A, Pouydebat E (2013b) Getting a grip on the evolution of grasping in musteloid carnivorans: A three-dimensional analysis of forelimb shape. J Evol Biol 26:1521-1535
40. Fabre A-C, Goswami A, Peigné S, Cornette R (2014) Morphological integration in the forelimb of musteloid carnivorans. J Anat 225: 19-30
41. Fabre A-C, Cornette R, Goswami A, Peigné S (2015) Do constraints associated with the locomotor habitat drive the evolution of forelimb shape? A case study in musteloid carnivorans. J Anat. doi:10.1111/joa.12315
42. Figueirido B, Janis CM (2011) The predatory behavior of the thylacine: Tasmanian tiger or marsupial wolf? Biol Lett 7:937-940
43. Figueirido B, Pérez-Claros JA, Hunt RM Jr, Palmqvist P (2011) Body mass estimation in amphicyonid carnivoran mammals: A multiple regression approach from the skull and skeleton. Acta Palaeontol Pol 56:225-246
44. Flores DA, Díaz MM (2009) Postcranial skeleton of Glironia venusta (Didelphimorphia, Didelphidae, Caluromyinae): Description and Functional Morphology. Zoosyst Evol 85:311-339
45. Fox R (2001) "Procyon lotor" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed February 3, 2015 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Procyon-lotor/
46. Goldberg J (2003) "Bassariscus astutus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed February 3, 2015 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Bassariscus-Astutus/
47. Gonyea WJ (1978) Functional implications of felid forelimb morphology. Acta Anat 102:111-121
48. Gould SJ, Vrba ES (1982) Exaptation-A missing term in the science of form. Paleobiology 8:4-15
49. Gregg M (2013) "Galictis vittata" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed February 3, 2015 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Galictis-vittata/
50. Gunz P, Mitteroecker P (2013) Semilandmarks: A method for quantifying curves and surfaces. Hystrix 24:1-7
51. Gunz P, Mitteroecker P, Bookstein FL (2005) Semilandmarks in three dimensions. In: Slice SE (ed) Modern morphometrics in physical anthropology. Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, New York, pp 73-98
52. Halenar LB (2011) Reconstructing the locomotor repertoire of Protopithecus brasiliensis. II. Forelimb morphology. Anat Rec 294:2048-2063
53. Heath T, Platnick J (2008) "Ailurus fulgens" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed February 3, 2015 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Ailurus-fulgens/
54. Hildebrand M (1985) Functional vertebrate morphology. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts
55. Hildebrand M (1988) Analysis of vertebrate structure, 3th edition. Wiley & Sons: New York, NY
56. Hoffman Z (2014) "Mellivora capensis" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed February 3, 2015 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Mellivora-capensis/
57. Hunter L, Barrett P (2011a) Carnivores of the world. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ
58. Hunter L, Barrett P (2011b) A Field Guide to the Carnivores of the World. New Holland Publishers: London, UK.
59. Hutchinson JR (2004) Biomechanical modeling and sensitivity analysis of bipedal running ability. II. Extinct taxa. J Morphol 262:441-461
60. Hutchinson JR (2011) On the inference of function from structure using biomechanical modelling and simulation of extinct organisms. Biology Letters http://rsbl.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/early/2011/06/08/rsbl.2011.0399.full.html
61. Hutchinson JR, Gatesy SM (2006) Beyond the bones. Nature 440:292-294
62. Hutchinson JR, Ng-Thow-Hing V, Anderson FC (2007) A 3D interactive method for estimating body segmental parameters in animals: Application to the turning and running performance of Tyrannosaurus rex. J Theor Biol 246:660-680
63. Iwaniuk AN, Pellis SM, Whishaw IQ (1999) The relationship between forelimb morphology and behaviour in North American carnivores (Carnivora). Can J Zool 77:1064-1074
64. Iwaniuk AN, Pellis SM, Whishaw IQ (2000) The relative importance of body size, phylogeny, locomotion, and diet in the evolution of fore-limb dexterity in fissiped carnivores (Carnivora). Can J Zool 78: 1110-1125
65. Janis CM, Figueirido B (2014) Forelimb anatomy and the discrimination of the predatory behaviour of carnivorous mammals: The thylacine as a case study. J Morphol 275:1321-1338
66. Janis CM, Wilhelm PB (1993) Were there mammalian pursuit predators in the Tertiary? Dances with wolf avatars. J Mammal Evol 1:103-125
67. Jones ME, Stoddart DM (1998) Reconstruction of the predatory behaviour of the extinct marsupial thylacine (Thylacinus cynocephalus). J Zool (Lond) 246:239-246
68. Jungers WL, Burr DB, Cole MS (1998) Body size and scaling of long bone geometry, bone strength and positional behavior in cercopithecoid primates. In: Strasser E, Fleagle JG, Rosenberger A, McHenry H (eds) Primate locomotion: recent advances. Plenum, New York, pp 309-330
69. Kennedy S (2003) "Lutra lutra" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed February 3, 2015 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich. edu/accounts/Lutra-lutra/
70. Kiiskila J (2014) "Mephitis mephitis" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed February 3, 2015 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich. edu/accounts/Mephitis-mephitis/
71. Larivière S (2002) Ictonyx striatus. Mamm Species 698:1-5
72. Losos JB (2011) Convergence, adaptation and constraint. Evolution 65-7:1827-1840
73. Lundrigan B, Conley M (2001) "Mustela putorius" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed February 3, 2015 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Mustela-putorius/
74. Marceau J (2001) "Nasua narica" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed February 3, 2015 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich. edu/accounts/Nasua-narica/
75. Martín-Serra A, Figueirido B, Palmqvist P (2014) A three-dimensional analysis of morphological evolution and locomotor performance of the carnivoran forelimb. PLoS ONE 9:e85574
76. McClearn D (1992) Locomotion, posture, and feeding behavior of kin-kajous, coatis, and raccoons. J Mammal 73:245-261
77. Meachen-Samuels JA (2012) Morphological convergence of the prey-killing arsenal of sabertooth predators. Paleobiology 38:1-14
78. Meachen-Samuels JA, Van Valkenburgh B (2009) Forelimb indicators of prey-size preference in the Felidae. J Morphol 270:729-744
79. Meloro C, Elton S, Louys J et al (2013) Cats in the forest: predicting habitat adaptations from humerus morphometry in extant and fossil Felidae (Carnivora). Paleobiology 39:323-344
80. Nowak RM (2005) Wa l k e r 's carnivores of the world. The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD
81. Patsy V, Sygo M (2009) "Gulo gulo" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed February 3, 2015 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich. edu/accounts/Gulo-gulo/
82. Peigné S, Salesa MJ, Antón M, Morales J (2008) A new amphicyonine (Carnivora: Amphicyonidae) from the Upper Miocene of Batallones-1, Madrid, Spain. Palaeontology 51:943-965
83. Pennington S (2002) "Spilogale putorius" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed February 3, 2015 at http://animaldiversity.ummz. umich.edu/accounts/Spilogale-putorius/
84. Petroelje T (2011) "Vormela peregusna" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed February 3, 2015 at http://animaldiversity.ummz. umich.edu/accounts/Vormela-peregusna/
85. Phillips N (2005) "Procyon cancrivorus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed February 3, 2015 at http://animaldiversity.ummz. umich.edu/accounts/Procyon-cancrivorus/
86. Polly PD (2008) Adaptive zones and the pinniped ankle: A 3D quantitative analysis of carnivoran tarsal evolution. In:Sargis E, Dagosto M (eds) Mammalian evolutionary morphology: A tribute to Frederick S. Szalay. Springer, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, pp 165-194
87. Polly PD, Macleod N (2008) Locomotion in fossil carnivora: An application of eigensurface analysis for morphometric comparison of 3D surfaces. Palaeontol Electron 11(2):8A
88. R Development Core Team (2011) R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing. Vienna: R Foundation for Statistical Computing, ISBN 3-900051-07-0. Available at: http://www.R-project.org
89. Rehder D (2007) "Potos flavus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed February 3, 2015 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich. edu/accounts/Potos-flavus/
90. Roberts MS, Gittleman JL (1984) Ailurus fulgens. Mamm Species 222:1-8
91. Rohlf FJ, Slice DE (1990) Extensions of the procrustes method for the optimal superimposition of landmarks. Syst Zool 39:40-59
92. Ruff CB (2000) Biomechanical analyses of archeological human skeletons. In: Katzenberg MA, Saunders SR (eds) Biological anthropology of the human skeleton. Wiley-Liss, New York, pp 71-102
93. Salesa MJ, Antón M, Turner A, Morales J (2005) Aspects of the functional morphology in the cranial and cervical skeleton of the sabre-toothed cat Paramachairodus ogygia (Kaup, 1832) (Felidae, Machairodontinae) from the Late Miocene of Spain: implications for the origins of the machairodont killing bite. Zool J Linn Soc 144:363-377
94. Salesa MJ, Antón M, Turner A, Morales J (2006) Inferred behaviour and ecology of the primitive sabre-toothed cat Paramachairodus ogygia (Felidae, Machairodontinae) from the Late Miocene of Spain. J Zool 268:243-254
95. Salesa MJ, Antón M, Peigné S, Morales J (2008) Functional anatomy and biomechanics of the postcranial skeleton of Simocyon batalleri (Viret, 1929) (Carnivora, Ailuridae) from the Late Miocene of Spain. Zool J Linn Soc 152:593-621
96. Salesa MJ, Antón M, Turner A, Morales J (2010) Functional anatomy of the forelimb in Promegantereon ogygia (Felidae, Machairodontinae, Smilodontini) from the Late Miocene of Spain and the origins of the sabre-toothed felid model. J Anat 216:381-396
97. Samuels JX, Van Valkenburgh B (2008) Skeletal indicators of locomotor adaptations in living and extinct rodents. J Morphol 269:1387-1411
98. Samuels JX, Meachen JA, Sakai SA (2013) Postcranial morphology and the locomotor habits of living and extinct carnivorans. J Morphol 274:121-146
99. Savage M (2000) "Lontra felina" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed February 3, 2015 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich. edu/accounts/Lontra-felina/
100. Schlimme K (2003) "Neovison vison" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed February 3, 2015 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich. edu/accounts/Neovison-vison/
101. Schmitt D (2003) Substrate size and primate forelimb mechanics: implications for understanding the evolution of primate locomotion. Int J Primatol 24:1023-1036
102. Schmitt D, Lemelin P (2002) Origins of primate locomotion: gait mechanics of the woolly opossum. Amer J Phys Anthropol 118(3): 231-238
103. Schreffler C (2003) "Eira barbara" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed February 3, 2015 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich. edu/accounts/Eira-barbara/
104. Schutz H, Guralnick RP (2007) Postcranial element shape and function: Assessing locomotor mode in extant and extinct mustelid carnivorans. Zool J Linn Soc 150:895-914
105. Schwanz L (2000) "Martes martes" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed February 3, 2015 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich. edu/accounts/Martes-martes/
106. Seefeldt R (2003) "Melogale moschata" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed February 3, 2015 at http://animaldiversity.ummz. umich.edu/accounts/Melogale-moschata/
107. Shalu T (2001) "Mustela lutreola" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed February 3, 2015 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich. edu/accounts/Mustela-lutreola/
108. Shefferly N (1999) "Taxideataxus" (Online), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed February 3, 2015 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich. edu/accounts/Taxidea-taxus/
109. Siliceo G, Salesa MJ, Antón M, Pastor JF, Morales J (2015) Comparative anatomy of the shoulder region in the Late Miocene amphicyonid Magericyon anceps (Carnivora): functional and paleoecological inferences. J Mammal Evol
110. Simpson GG (1953) The major features of evolution. Columbia biological series; no. 17 Columbia Univ. Press, New York
111. Slater GJ, Harmon LJ, Alfaro ME (2012) Integrating fossils with molecular phylogenies improves inference of trait evolution. Evolution 66-12:3931-3944
112. Taylor ME (1989) Locomotor adaptation by carnivores. In: Gittleman JL (ed) Carnivore behavior, ecology, and evolution. Cornell University Press, New York, NY, pp 383-409
113. Trapp GR (1972) Some anatomical and behavioural adaptations of ringtails, Bassariscus astutus. J Mammal 53:549-557
114. Van Valkenburgh B (1984) A morphological analysis of ecological separation within past and present predator guilds. Ph.D. dissertation, The Johns Hopkins University. University Microfilms, Ann Arbor
115. Van Valkenburgh B (1985) Locomotor diversity in past and present guilds of large predatory mammals. Paleobiology 11:406-428
116. Van Valkenburgh B (1987) Skeletal indicators of locomotor behaviour in living and extinct carnivores. J Vert Paleontol 7:162-182
117. Van Valkenburgh B (1988) Trophic diversity in past and present guilds of large predatory mammals. Paleobiology 14:155-173
118. Vrba ES (1992) Mammals as a key to evolutionary theory. J Mammal 73: 1-28
119. Wade-Smith J, Verts B (1982) Mephitis mephitis. Mamm Species 173:1-7
120. Wainwright PC (2007) Functional versus morphological diversity in mac-roevolution. Annu Rev Evol Syst 38:381-401
121. Wainwright PC, Alfaro ME, Bolnick DI, Hulsey CD (2005) Many-to-one mapping of form to function: A general principle in organismal design? Integr Comp Biol 45:256-262
122. Walmsley A, Elton S, Louys J et al (2012) Humeral epiphyseal shape in the felidae: The influence of phylogeny, allometry, and locomotion. J Morphol 273:1424-1438
123. Wang A (2011) "Meles meles" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed February 3, 2015 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Meles-meles/
124. Webb D, Sparrow WA (2007) Description of joint movements in human and non-human primate locomotion using Fourier analysis. Primates 48:277-292
125. Wiley DF, Amenta N, Alcantara DA, Ghosh D, Kil YJ, Delson E et al (2005) Evolutionary morphing. In: Proceedings of IEEE Visualization 2005 (VIS'05), 23-28 October 2005, Minneapolis, pp 431-438
126. Williams RC (1955) The osteology and myology of the ranch mink (Mustela vison). PhD thesis, Cornell University Press, New York
127. Wilson DE, Mittermeier RA (2009) Handbook of the mammals of the world, Lynx Edicions: Barcelona
128. Witmer LM (1995) The extant phylogenetic bracket and the importance of reconstructing soft tissues in fossils. In: Thomason JJ (ed) Functional morphology in vertebrate paleontology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 19-33
129. Yalden DW (1999) The history of British mammals. T and AD Poyser, London