Hepatic encephalopathy due to liver cirrhosis

BMJ (Online)

Volumn 351, Issue , 2015, Pages

  Ellul, Mark A ^a   Gholkar, Santosh A ^b   Cross, Timothy J ^c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF LIVERPOOL   (United Kingdom)

^b City Health Centre   (United Kingdom)

^c ROYAL LIVERPOOL UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AMMONIA; BENZODIAZEPINE DERIVATIVE; GLUTAMINE; LACTITOL; LACTULOSE; MACROGOL; NEOMYCIN; OPIATE; PROBIOTIC AGENT; RIFAXIMIN; SEDATIVE AGENT; ALBUMINOID; AMINO ACID; ARYLBUTYRIC ACID DERIVATIVE; DISACCHARIDE; GLYCEROL; GLYCEROL PHENYLBUTYRATE; NUCLEIC ACID SYNTHESIS INHIBITOR; ORNITHINE; ORNITHINE PHENYLACETATE; PROTEIN SYNTHESIS INHIBITOR; RIFAMYCIN;

ACUTE LIVER FAILURE; BRAIN EDEMA; CHILD PUGH SCORE; CHRONIC LIVER FAILURE; COGNITIVE DEFECT; COMPUTER ASSISTED TOMOGRAPHY; DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS; DYSBIOSIS; END STAGE LIVER DISEASE; HEPATIC ENCEPHALOPATHY; HUMAN; HYPONATREMIA; LIVER CIRRHOSIS; LIVER TRANSPLANTATION; NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL TEST; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN RESTRICTION; PSYCHOMOTOR RETARDATION; QUALITY OF LIFE; REVIEW; SECONDARY PREVENTION; SEIZURE; TERMINAL CARE; TRANSJUGULAR INTRAHEPATIC PORTOSYSTEMIC SHUNT; ANALOGS AND DERIVATIVES; COMPLICATION; DIET; DRUG RESISTANCE; ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPHY; NEUROLOGIC EXAMINATION; PROCEDURES;

ALBUMINS; AMINO ACIDS; DIAGNOSIS, DIFFERENTIAL; DIET; DISACCHARIDES; DRUG RESISTANCE; ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPHY; GLYCEROL; HEPATIC ENCEPHALOPATHY; HUMANS; LIVER CIRRHOSIS; MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; NEOMYCIN; NEUROLOGIC EXAMINATION; NUCLEIC ACID SYNTHESIS INHIBITORS; ORNITHINE; PHENYLBUTYRATES; PROBIOTICS; PROTEIN SYNTHESIS INHIBITORS; RIFAMYCINS; TERMINAL CARE; TOMOGRAPHY, X-RAY COMPUTED;

EID: 84942342572     PISSN: 09598146     EISSN: 17561833     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1136/bmj.h4187     Document Type: Review

References (61)

1. Bajaj JS. Review article: the modern management of hepatic encephalopathy. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2010;31:537-47.
2. Nabi E, Thacker LR, Wade JB, et al. Diagnosis of covert hepatic encephalopathy without specialized tests. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2014;12:1384-9.
3. Bustamante J, Rimola A, Ventura PJ, et al. Prognostic significance of hepatic encephalopathy in patients with cirrhosis. J Hepatol 1999;30:890-5.
4. American Association for the Study of Liver and European Association for the Study of the Liver. Hepatic encephalopathy in chronic liver disease: 2014 practice guideline by the European Association for the Study of the Liver and the American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases. J Hepatol 2014;6:642-59.
5. NHS Right Care. The NHS atlas of variation in healthcare for people with liver disease. Reducing unwarranted variation to increase value and improve quality, 2013. www.rightcare. nhs.uk/index.php/atlas/liver-disease-nhs-atlas-of-variation-in-healthcare-for-people-withliver-disease/.
6. Mokdad AA, Lopez AD, Shahraz S, et al. Liver cirrhosis mortality in 187 countries between 1980 and 2010: a systematic analysis. BMC Med 2014;12:145.
7. Ferenci P, Lockwood A, Mullen K, et al. Hepatic encephalopathy-definition, nomenclature, diagnosis, and quantification: final report of the working party at the 11th World Congresses of Gastroenterology, Vienna, 1998. Hepatology 2002;35:716-21.
8. Weissenborn K, Ennen JC, Schomerus H, et al. Neuropsychological characterization of hepatic encephalopathy. J Hepatol 2001;34:768-73.
9. Amodio P, Montagnese S, Gatta A, et al. Characteristics of minimal hepatic encephalopathy. Metab Brain Dis 2004;19:253-67.
10. Bajaj JS. Minimal hepatic encephalopathy matters in daily life. World J Gastroenterol 2008;14:3609-15.
11. Bajaj JS, Thacker LR, Heuman DM, et al. The Stroop smartphone application is a short and valid method to screen for minimal hepatic encephalopathy. Hepatology 2013;58:1122-32.
12. Kircheis G, Wettstein M, Timmermann L, et al. Critical flicker frequency for quantification of low-grade hepatic encephalopathy. Hepatology 2002;35:357-66.
13. Lauridsen MM, Thiele M, Kimer N, et al. The continuous reaction times method for diagnosing, grading, and monitoring minimal/covert hepatic encephalopathy. Metab Brain Dis 2013;28:231-4.
14. Amodio P, Del Piccolo F, Marchetti P, et al., Clinical features and survivial of cirrhotic patients with subclinical cognitive alterations detected by the number connection test and computerized psychometric tests. Hepatology 1999;29:1662-7.
15. Bajaj JS, Hafeezullah M, Franco J, et al. Inhibitory control test for the diagnosis of minimal hepatic encephalopathy. Gastroenterology 2008;135:1591-600.
16. Adams RD, Foley JM. The neurological disorder associated with liver disease. Res Publ Assoc Res Nerv Ment Dis 1953;32:198-237.
17. Scott TR, Kronsten VT, Hughes RD, et al. Pathophysiology of cerebral oedema in acute liver failure. World J Gastroenterol 2013;19:9240-55.
18. Lacerda G, Krummel T, Sabourdy C, et al. Optimizing therapy of seizures in patients with renal or hepatic dysfunction. Neurology 2006;67 (12 suppl 4):S28-33.
19. Ardizzone G, Arrigo A, Schellino MM. Neurological complications of liver cirrhosis and orthotopic liver transplant. Transplant Proc 2006;38:789-92.
20. Riggio O, Nardelli S, Moscucci F, et al. Hepatic encephalopathy after transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt. Clin Liver Dis 2012;16:133-46.
21. Rössle M. TIPS: 25 years later. J Hepatol 2013;59:1081-93.
22. Bai M, Qi X, Yang Z, et al. Predictors of hepatic encephalopathy after transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt in cirrhotic patients: a systematic review. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2011;26:943-51.
23. Fanelli F, Salvatori FM, Rabuffi P, et al. Management of refractory hepatic encephalopathy after insertion of TIPS: long-term results of shunt reduction with hourglass-shaped balloon-expandable stent-graft. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2009;193:1696-702.
24. Bianchi G, Giovagnoli M, Sasdelli AS, et al. Hepatic encephalopathy and health-related quality of life. Clin Liver Dis 2012;16:159-70.
25. Patidar KR, Thacker LR, Wade JB, et al. Covert hepatic encephalopathy is independently associated with poor survival and increased risk of hospitalization. Am J Gastroenterol 2014;109:1757-63.
26. Martinez-Hernandez A, Bell KP, Norenberg MD. Glutamine synthetase: glial localization in brain. Science 1977;195:1356-8.
27. Desjardins P, Du T, Jiang W, et al. Pathogenesis of hepatic encephalopathy and brain edema in acute liver failure: role of glutamine redefined. Neurochem Int 2012;60:690-6.
28. Iwasa M, Takei Y. Pathophysiology and management of hepatic encephalopathy 2014 update: ammonia toxicity and hyponatremia. Hepatol Res 2015; doi:10.1111/hepr.12495.
29. Merli M, Giusto M, Lucidi C, et al. Muscle depletion increases the risk of overt and minimal hepatic encephalopathy: results of a prospective study. Metab Brain Dis 2013;28:281-4.
30. Jalan R, Kapoor D. Reversal of diuretic-induced hepatic encephalopathy with infusion of albumin but not colloid. Clin Sci (Lond) 2004;106:467-74.
31. Shawcross DL, Davies NA, Williams R, et al. Systemic inflammatory response exacerbates the neuropsychological effects of induced hyperammonemia in cirrhosis. J Hepatol 2004;40:247-54.
32. Rai R, Saraswat VA, Dhiman RK. Gut microbiota: its role in hepatic encephalopathy. J Clin Exp Hepatol 2015;5(suppl 1):S29-36.
33. Kramer L, Tribl B, Gendo A, et al. Partial pressure of ammonia versus ammonia in hepatic encephalopathy. Hepatology 2000;31:30-4.
34. Basile AS. Direct and indirect enhancement of GABAergic neurotransmission by ammonia: implications for the pathogenesis of hyperammonemic syndromes. Neurochem Int 2002;41:115-22.
35. Jiang M, Wang Z, Tsauo J, et al. Basal ganglia hyperintensity may be a marker of hepatic encephalopathy secondary to portosystemic shunting. Clin Res Hepatol Gastroenterol 2015;39:e5-6.
36. Stewart CA, Reivich M, Lucey MR, Gores GJ. Neuroimaging in hepatic encephalopathy. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2005;3:197-207.
37. Stewart J, Särkelä M, Koivusalo AM. Frontal electroencephalogram variables are associated with outcome and stage of hepatic encephalopathy in acute liver failure. Liver Transpl 2014;20:1256-65.
38. Amodio P, Campagna F, Olianas S. Detection of minimal hepatic encephalopathy: normalization and optimization of the Psychometric Hepatic Encephalopathy Score. A neuropsychological and quantified EEG study. J Hepatol 2008;49:346-53.
39. Duseja A, Chawla YK, Dhiman RK, et al. Non-hepatic insults are common acute precipitants in patients with acute on chronic liver failure (ACLF). Dig Dis Sci 2010;55:3188-92.
40. Bajaj JS, Saeian K, Schubert CM. Minimal hepatic encephalopathy is associated with motor vehicle crashes: the reality beyond the driving test. Hepatology 2009;50:1175-83.
41. Drivers Medical Group, DVLA. For medical practitioners: at a glance guide to the current medical standards of fitness to drive. Driver and Vehicle Licensing Authority, 2014. https://www.gov. uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment-data/file/435071/aagv1.pdf.
42. Cabral CM, Burns DL. Low-protein diets for hepatic encephalopathy debunked: let them eat steak. Nutr Clin Pract 2011;26:155-9.
43. Córdoba J, López-Hellín J, Planas M, et al. Normal protein diet for episodic hepatic encephalopathy: results of a randomized study. J Hepatol 2004;41:38-43.
44. Amodio P, Bemeur C, Butterworth R, et al. The nutritional management of hepatic encephalopathy in patients with cirrhosis: International Society for Hepatic Encephalopathy and Nitrogen Metabolism Consensus. Hepatology 2013;58:325-36.
45. Vince AJ, Burridge SM. Ammonia production by intestinal bacteria: the effects of lactose, lactulose and glucose. J Med Microbiol 1980;13:177-91.
46. Paik YH, Lee KS, Han KH, et al. Comparison of rifaximin and lactulose for the treatment of hepatic encephalopathy: a prospective randomized study. Yonsei Med J 2005;46:399-407.
47. Als-Nielsen B, Gluud LL, Gluud C. Nonabsorbable disaccharides for hepatic encephalopathy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2004; (2): CD003044.
48. Sharma BC, Sharma P, Agrawal A, et al. Secondary prophylaxis of hepatic encephalopathy: an open-label randomized controlled trial of lactulose versus placebo. Gastroenterology 2009;137:885-91.
49. Cammà C, Fiorello F, Tinè F, et al. Lactitol in treatment of chronic hepatic encephalopathy. A meta-analysis. Dig Dis Sci 1993;38:916-22.
50. Xu J, Ma R, Chen LF, et al. Effects of probiotic therapy on hepatic encephalopathy in patients with liver cirrhosis: an updated meta-analysis of six randomized controlled trials. Hepatobiliary Pancreat Dis Int 2014;13:354-60.
51. McGee RG, Bakens A, Wiley K, et al. Probiotics for patients with hepatic encephalopathy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2011; (2): CD008716.
52. Rahimi RS, Singal AG, Cuthbert JA, et al. Lactulose vs polyethylene glycol 3350-electrolyte solution for treatment of overt hepatic encephalopathy: the HELP randomized clinical trial. JAMA Intern Med 2014;174:1727-33.
53. Hawkins RA, Jessy J, Mans AM, Chedid A, De Joseph MR. Neomycin reduces the intestinal production of ammonia from glutamine. Adv Exp Med Biol 1994;368:125-34.
54. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Rifaximin for preventing episodes of overt hepatic encephalopathy (technology appraisal guidance 337). 2015. www.nice.org. uk/guidance/ta337.
55. Bass NM, Mullen KD, Sanyal A, et al. Rifaximin treatment in hepatic encephalopathy. N Engl J Med 2010;362:1071-81.
56. Laleman W, Simon-Talero M, Maleux G, et al. Embolization of large spontaneous portosystemic shunts for refractory hepatic encephalopathy: a multicenter survey on safety and efficacy. Hepatology 2013;57:2448-57.
57. An J, Kim KW, Han S, et al. Improvement in survival associated with embolisation of spontaneous portosystemic shunt in patients with recurrent hepatic encephalopathy. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2014;39:1418-26.
58. Martin P, Di Martini A, Feng S, et al. Evaluation for liver transplantation in adults: 2013 practice guideline by the American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases and the American Society of Transplantation. Hepatology 2014;59:1144-65.
59. Neuberger J, Gimson A, Davies M, et al. Selection of patients for liver transplantation and allocation of donated livers in the UK. Gut 2008;57:252-7.
60. Bathgate A. UK liver transplant units. Recommendations for alcohol-related liver disease. Lancet 2006;367:2045-6.
61. Kendrick, E. Getting it right: Improving end of life care for people living with liver disease. NHS Liver Care, 2013.