Sanitation in constructed wetlands: A review on the removal of human pathogens and fecal indicators

Science of the Total Environment

Volumn 541, Issue , 2016, Pages 8-22

  Wu, Shubiao ^a   Carvalho, Pedro N ^b   Müller, Jochen A ^c   Manoj, Valsa Remony ^d   Dong, Renjie ^a  

^a CHINA AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY   (China)

^b AARHUS UNIVERSITY   (Denmark)

^c HELMHOLTZ CENTRE FOR ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH UFZ   (Germany)

^d VELAMMAL ENGINEERING COLLEGE   (India)

Author keywords

Constructed wetlands; Fecal indicators; Mechanisms removal of bacteria; Sanitation; Wastewater treatment performance; Waterborne pathogens

Indexed keywords

BACTERIA; EFFLUENTS; PATHOGENS; POLLUTION CONTROL; SANITATION; WASTEWATER TREATMENT; WATER ANALYSIS; WETLANDS;

CONSTRUCTED WETLANDS; CONSTRUCTED WETLANDS (CWS); FECAL INDICATOR BACTERIA; FECAL INDICATORS; HORIZONTAL SUBSURFACE FLOW; STATE-OF-THE-ART TECHNOLOGY; TREATMENT PERFORMANCE; WATER-BORNE PATHOGENS;

WATER POLLUTION;

OXYGEN; WATER; WASTE WATER; WATER POLLUTANT;

BACTERIUM; CONSTRUCTED WETLAND; EFFLUENT; FECES; PATHOGEN; SANITATION; WASTE TREATMENT; WASTEWATER; WATER TREATMENT;

ADSORPTION; BACTERIUM CONTAMINATION; CONSTRUCTED WETLAND; ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION; ENVIRONMENTAL TEMPERATURE; FECES MICROFLORA; FILTER; FILTRATION; INDICATOR ORGANISM; NONHUMAN; PH; PREDATION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SEASONAL VARIATION; SEDIMENTATION; STARVATION; SUNLIGHT; VEGETATION; WASTE COMPONENT REMOVAL; WASTE WATER MANAGEMENT; ANALYSIS; BACTERIUM; BIOREMEDIATION; ECOSYSTEM; FECES; HUMAN; MICROBIOLOGY; PROCEDURES; SANITATION; SEWAGE; WASTE WATER; WATER POLLUTANT; WETLAND;

ANIMALIA;

BACTERIA; BIODEGRADATION, ENVIRONMENTAL; ECOSYSTEM; FECES; FILTRATION; HUMANS; SANITATION; WASTE DISPOSAL, FLUID; WASTE WATER; WATER MICROBIOLOGY; WATER POLLUTANTS; WETLANDS;

EID: 84941895645     PISSN: 00489697     EISSN: 18791026     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.09.047     Document Type: Review

References (131)

1. Abdel-Shafy H.I., El-Khateeb M.A. Integration of septic tank and constructed wetland for the treatment of wastewater in Egypt. Desalin. Water Treat. 2013, 51(16-18):3539-3546.
2. Ansola G., González J.M., Cortijo R., de Luis E. Experimental and full-scale pilot plant constructed wetlands for municipal wastewaters treatment. Ecol. Eng. 2003, 21(1):43-52.
3. Antoniadis A., Takavakoglou V., Zalidis G., Darakas E., Poulios I. Municipal wastewater treatment by sequential combination of photocatalytic oxidation with constructed wetlands. Catal. Today 2010, 151(1):114-118.
4. 2 production. Bioresour. Technol. 2014, 155:352-358.
5. Arias C., Cabello A., Brix H., Johansen N. Removal of indicator bacteria from municipal wastewater in an experimental two-stage vertical flow constructed wetland system. Water Sci. Technol. 2003, 48(5):35-41.
6. Avelar F.F., de Matos A.T., de Matos M.P., Borges A.C. Coliform bacteria removal from sewage in constructed wetlands planted with mentha aquatica. Environ. Technol. 2014, 35(16):2095-2103.
7. Axelrood P.E., Radley R., Clarke A.M., Zemcov S.J.V. Douglas-fir root-associated microorganisms with inhibitory activity towards fungal plant pathogens and human bacterial pathogens. Can. J. Microbiol. 1996, 42(7):690-700.
8. Ayaz S.C. Post-treatment and reuse of tertiary treated wastewater by constructed wetlands. Desalination 2008, 226(1-3):249-255.
9. Azaizeh H., Linden K., Barstow C., Kalbouneh S., Tellawi A., Albalawneh A., Gerchman Y. Constructed wetlands combined with UV disinfection systems for removal of enteric pathogens and wastewater contaminants. Water Sci. Technol. 2013, 67(3):651-657.
10. Barros P., Ruiz I., Soto M. Performance of an anaerobic digester-constructed wetland system for a small community. Ecol. Eng. 2008, 33(2):142-149.
11. Berendonk T.U., Manaia C.M., Merlin C., Fatta-Kassinos D., Cytryn E., Walsh F., Bürgmann H., Sørum H., Norström M., Pons M.-N., Kreuzinger N., Huovinen P., Stefani S., Schwartz T., Kisand V., Baquero F., Martinez J.L. Tackling antibiotic resistance: the environmental framework. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 2015, 13(5):310-317.
12. Blanc R., Nasser A. Effect of effluent quality and temperature on the persistence of viruses in soil. Water Sci. Technol. 1996, 33(10-11):237-242.
13. Boutilier L., Jamieson R., Gordon R., Lake C., Hart W. Adsorption, sedimentation, and inactivation of E. coli within wastewater treatment wetlands. Water Res. 2009, 43(17):4370-4380.
14. Boutilier L., Jamieson R., Gordon R., Lake C., Hart W. Performance of surface-flow domestic wastewater treatment wetlands. Wetlands 2010, 30(4):795-804.
15. Brettar I., Höfle M. Influence of ecosystematic factors on survival of Escherichia coli after large-scale release into lake water mesocosms. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1992, 58(7):2201-2210.
16. Brix H. Do macrophytes play a role in constructed treatment wetlands?. Water Sci. Technol. 1997, 35(5):11-17.
17. Brown D.G., Jaffé P.R. Effects of nonionic surfactants on bacterial transport through porous media. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2001, 35(19):3877-3883.
18. Caselles-Osorio A., Villafañe P., Caballero V., Manzano Y. Efficiency of mesocosm-scale constructed wetland systems for treatment of sanitary wastewater under tropical conditions. Water Air Soil Pollut. 2011, 220(1-4):161-171.
19. Curds C.R. The ecology and role of protozoa in aerobic sewage treatment processes. Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 1982, 36(1):27-28.
20. Dahab M., Surampalli R. Subsurface-flow constructed wetlands treatment in the plains: five years of experience. Water Sci. Technol. 2001, 44(11-12):375-380.
21. Dai X., Boll J. Settling velocity of Cryptosporidium parvum and Giardia lamblia. Water Res. 2006, 40(6):1321-1325.
22. Davies C.M., Bavor H.J. The fate of stormwater-associated bacteria in constructed wetland and water pollution control pond systems. J. Appl. Microbiol. 2000, 89(2):349-360.
23. Davies-Colley R., Donnison A., Speed D., Ross C., Nagels J.a. Inactivation of faecal indicator micro-organisms in waste stabilisation ponds: interactions of environmental factors with sunlight. Water Res. 1999, 33(5):1220-1230.
24. Davison L., Headley T., Edmonds M. On-site domestic wastewater treatment by reed bed in the moist subtropics. Water Sci. Technol. 2001, 44(11-12):353-360.
25. Decamp O., Warren A. Bacterivory in ciliates isolated from constructed wetlands (reed beds) used for wastewater treatment. Water Res. 1998, 32(7):1989-1996.
26. Decamp O., Warren A. Investigation of Escherichia coli removal in various designs of subsurface flow wetlands used for wastewater treatment. Ecol. Eng. 2000, 14(3):293-299.
27. Decamp O., Warren A., Sanchez R. The role of ciliated protozoa in subsurface flow wetlands and their potential as bioindicators. Water Sci. Technol. 1999, 40(3):91-98.
28. Diaz F.J., O'Geen A.T., Dahlgren R.A. Efficacy of constructed wetlands for removal of bacterial contamination from agricultural return flows. Agric. Water Manag. 2010, 97(11):1813-1821.
29. Dixon A., Butler D., Fewkes A., Robinson M. Measurement and modelling of quality changes in stored untreated grey water. Urban Water 2000, 1(4):293-306.
30. Dufour A., Snozzi M., Koster W., Bartram J., Ronchi E., Fewtrell L. Assessing microbial safety of drinking water: improving approaches and methods. WHO drinking water quality series, OECD-WHO, Paris, France 2003, IWA Publishing, London, UK.
31. Easton J.H., Gauthier J.J., Lalor M.M., Pitt R.E. Die-off of pathogenic E. coli O157: H7 in sewage contaminated waters. J. Am. Water Resour. Assoc. 2005, 41(5):1187-1193.
32. Elhamouri B., Khallayoune K., Bouzoubaa K., Rhallabi N., Chalabi M. High-rate algal pond performances in faecal-coliforms and helminth egg removals. Water Res. 1994, 28(1):171-174.
33. Falabi J., Gerba C., Karpiscak M. Giardia and Cryptosporidium removal from waste-water by a duckweed (Lemna gibba L.) covered pond. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 2002, 34(5):384-387.
34. Fernández A., Tejedor C., Chordi A. Effect of different factors on the die-off of faecal bacteria in a stabilization pond purification plant. Water Res. 1992, 26(8):1093-1098.
35. Fischer U.R., Wieltschnig C., Kirschner A.K., Velimirov B. Contribution of virus-induced lysis and protozoan grazing to benthic bacterial mortality estimated simultaneously in microcosms. Environ. Microbiol. 2006, 8(8):1394-1407.
36. Gagliardi J.V., Karns J.S. Leaching of Escherichia coli O157:H7 in diverse soils under various agricultural management practices. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2000, 66(3):877-883.
37. Galvão A., Matos J., Silva M., Ferreira F. Constructed wetland performance and potential for microbial removal. Desalin. Water Treat. 2009, 4(1-3):76-84.
38. García J.A., Paredes D., Cubillos J.A. Effect of plants and the combination of wetland treatment type systems on pathogen removal in tropical climate conditions. Ecol. Eng. 2013, 58:57-62.
39. García M., Soto F., González J.M., Bécares E. A comparison of bacterial removal efficiencies in constructed wetlands and algae-based systems. Ecol. Eng. 2008, 32(3):238-243.
40. García J., Vivar J., Aromir M., Mujeriego R. Role of hydraulic retention time and granular medium in microbial removal in tertiary treatment reed beds. Water Res. 2003, 37(11):2645-2653.
41. García M., Bécares E. Bacterial removal in three pilot-scale wastewater treatment systems for rural areas. Water Sci. Technol. 1997, 35(11):197-200.
42. Gersberg R.M., Gearheart R.A., Ives M. Pathogen removal in constructed wetlands. Constructed Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment: Municipal, Industrial and Agricultural 1989, 431-445. Lewis Publishers Inc., MI, USA. D.A. Hammer (Ed.).
43. Graczyk T.K., Lucy F.E., Mashinsky Y., Thompson R.C.A., Koru O., daSilva A.J. Human zoonotic enteropathogens in a constructed free-surface flow wetland. Parasitol. Res. 2009, 105(2):423-428.
44. Graczyk T.K., Lucy F.E., Tamang L., Mashinski Y., Broaders M.A., Connolly M., Cheng H.W.A. Propagation of human enteropathogens in constructed horizontal wetlands used for tertiary wastewater treatment. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2009, 75(13):4531-4538.
45. Grafias P., Xekoukoulotakis N.P., Mantzavinos D., Diamadopoulos E. Pilot treatment of olive pomace leachate by vertical-flow constructed wetland and electrochemical oxidation: an efficient hybrid process. Water Res. 2010, 44(9):2773-2780.
46. Grant S.B., Sanders B.F., Boehm A.B., Redman J.A., Kim J.H., Mrse R.D., Chu A.K., Gouldin M., McGee C.D., Gardiner N.A., Jones B.H., Svejkovsky J., Leipzig G.V., Brown A. Generation of enterococci bacteria in a coastal saltwater marsh and its impact on surf zone water quality. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2001, 35(12):2407-2416.
47. Green M.B., Griffin P., Seabridge J.K., Dhobie D. Removal of bacteria in subsurface flow wetlands. Water Sci. Technol. 1997, 35(5):109-116.
48. Hahn M.W., Höfle M.G. Grazing of protozoa and its effect on populations of aquatic bacteria. FEMS Microbiol. Ecol. 2001, 35(2):113-121.
49. Hazen T.C., Fliermans C.B., Hirsch R.P., Esch G.W. Prevalence and distribution of Aeromonas hydrophila in the United States. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1978, 36(5):731-738.
50. Headley T., Nivala J., Kassa K., Olsson L., Wallace S., Brix H., van Afferden M., Müller R. Escherichia coli removal and internal dynamics in subsurface flow ecotechnologies: effects of design and plants. Ecol. Eng. 2013, 61:564-574.
51. Hench K.R., Bissonnette G.K., Sexstone A.J., Coleman J.G., Garbutt K., Skousen J.G. Fate of physical, chemical, and microbial contaminants in domestic wastewater following treatment by small constructed wetlands. Water Res. 2003, 37(4):921-927.
52. Hill V., Sobsey M. Removal of Salmonella and microbial indicators in constructed wetlands treating swine wastewater. Water Sci. Technol. 2001, 44(11-12):215-222.
53. Horn T.B., Zerwes F.V., Kist L.T., Machado Ê.L. Constructed wetland and photocatalytic ozonation for university sewage treatment. Ecol. Eng. 2014, 63:134-141.
54. Howell J., Coyne M.S., Cornelius P. Effect of sediment particle size and temperature on faecal bacteria mortality rates and the faecal coliform/faecal streptococci ratio. J. Environ. Qual. 1996, 25(6):1216-1220.
55. Jasper J.T., Nguyen M.T., Jones Z.L., Ismail N.S., Sedlak D.L., Sharp J.O., Luthy R.G., Horne A.J., Nelson K.L. Unit process wetlands for removal of trace organic contaminants and pathogens from municipal wastewater effluents. Environ. Eng. Sci. 2013, 30(8):421-436.
56. Jinadasa K.B.S.N., Tanaka N., Mowjood M.I.M., Werellagama D.R.I.B. Effectiveness of Scirpus grossus in treatment of domestic wastes in a constructed wetland. J. Freshw. Ecol. 2006, 21(4):603-612.
57. Jokerst A., Sharvelle S.E., Hollowed M.E., Roesner L.A. Seasonal performance of an outdoor constructed wetland for graywater treatment in a temperate climate. Water Environ. Res. 2011, 83(12):2187-2198.
58. Kadam A.M., Oza G.H., Nemade P.D., Shankar H.S. Pathogen removal from municipal wastewater in constructed soil filter. Ecol. Eng. 2008, 33(1):37-44.
59. Kadlec R., Wallace S. Treatment wetlands 2009, CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida. 2nd ed.
60. Kadlec R.H., Cuvellier C., Stober T. Performance of the columbia, Missouri, treatment wetland. Ecol. Eng. 2010, 36(5):672-684.
61. Kansiime F., van Bruggen J. Distribution and retention of faecal coliforms in the Nakivubo wetland in Kampala, Uganda. Water Sci. Technol. 2001, 44(11-12):199-206.
62. Karathanasis A.D., Potter C.L., Coyne M.S. Vegetation effects on faecal bacteria, BOD, and suspended solid removal in constructed wetlands treating domestic wastewater. Ecol. Eng. 2003, 20(2):157-169.
63. Karpiscak M., Sanchez L., Freitas R., Gerba C. Removal of bacterial indicators and pathogens from dairy wastewater by a multi-component treatment system. Water Sci. Technol. 2001, 44(11-12):183-190.
64. Karim M.R., Manshadi F.D., Karpiscak M.M., Gerba C.P. The persistance and removal of enteric pathogens in constructed wetlands. Water Res. 2004, 38(7):1831-1837.
65. Keffala C., Ghrabi A. Nitrogen and bacterial removal in constructed wetlands treating domestic waste water. Desalination 2005, 185(1):383-389.
66. Khatiwada N.R., Polprasert C. Kinetics of faecal coliform removal in constructed wetland. Water Sci. Technol. 1999, 40(3):109-116.
67. Stevik T.K., Aa K., Ausland G., Hanssen J.F. Retention and removal of pathogenic bacteria in wastewater percolating through porous media: a review. Water Res. 2004, 38(6):1355-1367.
68. Leclerc H., Schwartzbrod L., Dei-Cas E. Microbial agents associated with waterborne diseases. Crit. Rev. Microbiol. 2002, 28(4):371-409.
69. Lijklema L., Habekotté B., Hooijmans C., Aalderink R.H., Havelaar A.H. Survival of indicator organisms in a detention pond receiving combined sewer overflow. Water Sci. Technol. 1987, 19(3-4):547-555.
70. Lightbody A.F., Avener M.E., Nepf H.M. Observations of short-circuiting flow paths within a free-surface wetland in Augusta, Georgia, USA. Limnol. Oceanogr. 2008, 53(3):1040-1053.
71. Liu L., Liu C., Zheng J., Huang X., Wang Z., Liu Y., Zhu G. Elimination of veterinary antibiotics and antibiotic resistance genes from swine wastewater in the vertical flow constructed wetlands. Chemosphere 2013, 91(8):1088-1093.
72. MacIntyre M., Warner B., Slawson R. Escherichia coli control in a surface flow treatment wetland. J Water Health 2006, 211:214.
73. Mantovi P., Marmiroli M., Maestri E., Tagliavini S., Piccinini S., Marmiroli N. Application of a horizontal subsurface flow constructed wetland on treatment of dairy parlor wastewater. Bioresour. Technol. 2003, 88(2):85-94.
74. Masi F., Martinuzzi N. Constructed wetlands for the Mediterranean countries: hybrid systems for water reuse and sustainable sanitation. Desalination 2007, 215(1):44-55.
75. Mayo A.W. Kinetics of bacterial mortality in granular bed wetlands. Phys. Chem. Earth 2004, 29(15-18):1259-1264.
76. Mbuligwe S.E. Applicability of a septic tank/engineered wetland coupled system in the treatment and recycling of wastewater from a small community. Environ. Manag. 2005, 35(1):99-108.
77. McFeters G.A., Stuart D.G. Survival of coliform bacteria in natural waters - field and laboratory studies with membrane-filter chambers. Appl. Microbiol. 1972, 24(5):805-811.
78. 2 in a bioelectrochemical reactor fed with real municipal wastewater. Environ. Technol. 2013, 34(19):2737-2742.
79. Mulling B.T.M., van den Boomen R.M., van der Geest H.G., Kappelhof J.W.N.M., Admiraal W. Suspended particle and pathogen peak discharge buffering by a surface-flow constructed wetland. Water Res. 2013, 47(3):1091-1100.
80. Neralla S., Weaver R.W. Phytoremediation of domestic wastewater for reducing populations of Escherichia coli and MS-2 coliphage. Environ. Technol. 2000, 21:691-698.
81. Neralla S., Weaver R.W., Lesikar B.J., Persyn R.A. Improvement of domestic wastewater quality by subsurface flow constructed wetlands. Bioresour. Technol. 2000, 75(1):19-25.
82. Nokes R.L., Gerba C.P., Karpiscak M.M. Microbial water quality improvement by small scale on-site subsurface wetland treatment. J. Environ. Sci. Health A-Toxic/Hazard. Subst. Environ. Eng. 2003, 38(9):1849-1855.
83. Nõlvak H., Truu M., Tiirik K., Oopkaup K., Sildvee T., Kaasik A., Mander Ü., Truu J. Dynamics of antibiotic resistance genes and their relationships with system treatment efficiency in a horizontal subsurface flow constructed wetland. Sci. Total Environ. 2013, 461:636-644.
84. Olson M.R., Axler R.P., Hicks R.E. Effects of freezing and storage temperature on MS2 viability. J. Virol. Methods 2004, 122(2):147-152.
85. Orosz-Coghlan P.A., Rusin P.A., Karpiscak M.M., Gerba C.P. Microbial source tracking of Escherichia coli in a constructed wetland. Water Environ. Res. 2006, 78(3):227-232.
86. Ottosson J., Stenström T. Growth and reduction of microorganisms in sediments collected from a greywater treatment system. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 2003, 36(3):168-172.
87. Ottová V., Balcarová J., Vymazal J. Microbial characteristics of constructed wetlands. Water Sci. Technol. 1997, 35(5):117-123.
88. Payment P., Locas A. Pathogens in water: value and limits of correlation with microbial indicators. Groundwater 2011, 49(1):4-11.
89. Pearson H., Mara D., Mills S., Smallman D. Physico-chemical parameters influencing faecal bacterial survival in waste stabilization ponds. Water Sci. Technol. 1987, 19(12):145-152.
90. Pernthaler J. Predation on prokaryotes in the water column and its ecological implications. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 2005, 3:537-546.
91. Podschun R., Pietsch S., Höller C., Ullmann U. Incidence of Klebsiella species in surface waters and their expression of virulence factors. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2001, 67(7):3325-3327.
92. Pundsack J., Axler R., Hicks R., Henneck J., Nordman D., McCarthy B. Seasonal pathogen removal by alternative on-site wastewater treatment systems. Water Environ. Res. 2001, 73(2):204-212.
93. Quiñónez-Díaz M.d.J., Karpiscak M.M., Ellman E.D., Gerba C.P. Removal of pathogenic and indicator microorganisms by a constructed wetland receiving untreated domestic wastewater. J. Environ. Sci. Health A-Toxic/Hazard. Subst. Environ. Eng. 2001, 36(7):1311-1320.
94. Redder A., Duerr M., Daeschlein G., Baeder-Bederski O., Koch C., Mueller R., Exner M., Borneff-Lipp M. Constructed wetlands - are they safe in reducing protozoan parasites?. Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health 2010, 213(1):72-77.
95. Reinoso R., Torres L.A., Becares E. Efficiency of natural systems for removal of bacteria and pathogenic parasites from wastewater. Sci. Total Environ. 2008, 395(2-3):80-86.
96. Richter A.Y., Weaver R.W. Treatment of domestic wastewater by subsurface flow constructed wetlands filled with gravel and tire chip media. Environ. Technol. 2003, 24(12):1561-1567.
97. Richter A.Y., Weaver R.W. Ultraviolet disinfection of effluent from subsurface flow constructed wetlands. Environ. Technol. 2003, 24(9):1175-1182.
98. Rivera F., Warren A., Ramirez E., Decamp O., Bonilla P., Gallegos E., Calderon A., Sanchez J.T. Removal of pathogens from wastewaters by the root zone method (RZM). Water Sci. Technol. 1995, 32(3):211-218.
99. Rizzo L., Manaia C., Merlin C., Schwartz T., Dagot C., Ploy M.C., Fatta-Kassinos D. Urban wastewater treatment plants as hotspots for antibiotic resistant bacteria and genes spread into the environment: a review. Sci. Total Environ. 2013, 447:345-360.
100. Rose J.B., Sun G.-S., Gerba C.P., Sinclair N.A. Microbial quality and persistence of enteric pathogens in graywater from various household sources. Water Res. 1991, 25(1):37-42.
101. Sawaittayothin V., Polprasert C. Nitrogen mass balance and microbial analysis of constructed wetlands treating municipal landfill leachate. Bioresour. Technol. 2007, 98(3):565-570.
102. Sengupta M.E., Thamsborg S.M., Andersen T.J., Olsen A., Dalsgaard A. Sedimentation of helminth eggs in water. Water Res. 2011, 45(15):4651-4660.
103. Sidrach-Cardona R., Bécares E. Faecal indicator bacteria resistance to antibiotics in experimental constructed wetlands. Ecol. Eng. 2013, 50:107-111.
104. Sklarz M., Gross A., Yakirevich A., Soares M. A recirculating vertical flow constructed wetland for the treatment of domestic wastewater. Desalination 2009, 246(1):617-624.
105. Sleytr K., Tietz A., Langergraber G., Haberl R. Investigation of bacterial removal during the filtration process in constructed wetlands. Sci. Total Environ. 2007, 380(1-3):173-180.
106. Solano M., Soriano P., Ciria M. Constructed wetlands as a sustainable solution for wastewater treatment in small villages. Biosyst. Eng. 2004, 87(1):109-118.
107. Solano M.L., Soriano P., Ciria M.P. Constructed wetlands as a sustainable solution for wastewater treatment in small villages. Biosyst. Eng. 2004, 87(1):109-118.
108. Šolić M., Krstulović N. Separate and combined effects of solar radiation, temperature, salinity, and pH on the survival of faecal coliforms in seawater. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 1992, 24(8):411-416.
109. Song Z.W., Wu L., Yang G., Xu M., Wen S.P. Indicator microorganisms and pathogens removal function performed by copepods in constructed wetlands. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 2008, 81(5):459-463.
110. Steinberg K.M., Levin B.R. Grazing protozoa and the evolution of the Escherichia coli O157: H7 Shiga toxin-encoding prophage. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci. 2007, 274(1621):1921-1929.
111. Tanner C.C., Clayton J.S., Upsdell M.P. Effect of loading rate and planting on treatment of dairy farm wastewaters - I. Removal of oxygen demand, suspended solids and faecal coliforms. Water Res. 1995, 29(1):17-26.
112. Tanner C.C., Sukias J.P., Headley T.R., Yates C.R., Stott R. Constructed wetlands and denitrifying bioreactors for on-site and decentralised wastewater treatment: comparison of five alternative configurations. Ecol. Eng. 2012, 42:112-123.
113. Thomas V., McDonnell G., Denyer S.P., Maillard J.-Y. Free-living amoebae and their intracellular pathogenic microorganisms: risks for water quality. FEMS Microbiol. Rev. 2010, 34(3):231-259.
114. Thurston J.A., Gerba C.P., Foster K.E., Karpiscak M.M. Fate of indicator microorganisms, Giardia and Cryptosporidium in subsurface flow constructed wetlands. Water Res. 2001, 35(6):1547-1551.
115. Torrens A., Molle P., Boutin C., Salgot M. Removal of bacterial and viral indicators in vertical flow constructed wetlands and intermittent sand filters. Desalination 2009, 246(1-3):169-178.
116. Toscano A., Hellio C., Marzo A., Milani M., Lebret K., Cirelli G.L., Langergraber G. Removal efficiency of a constructed wetland combined with ultrasound and UV devices for wastewater reuse in agriculture. Environ. Technol. 2013, 34(15):2327-2336.
117. Travis M.J., Weisbrod N., Gross A. Decentralized wetland-based treatment of oil-rich farm wastewater for reuse in an arid environment. Ecol. Eng. 2012, 39:81-89.
118. Tunçsiper B., Ayaz S.Ç., Akça L. Coliform bacteria removal from septic wastewater in a pilot-scale combined constructed wetland system. Environ. Eng. Manag. J. (EEMJ) 2012, 11(10):1873-1879.
119. Tuncsiper B. Removal of nutrient and bacteria in pilot-scale constructed wetlands. J. Environ. Sci. Health A 2007, 42(8):1117-1124.
120. Ulrich H., Klaus D., Irmgard F., Annette H., Juan L.P., Regine S. Microbiological investigations for sanitary assessment of wastewater treated in constructed wetlands. Water Res. 2005, 39(20):4849-4858.
121. USEPA, USAID Guidelines for Water Reuse. Technical Report No. EPA/625/R-92/004 1992, Environmental Protection Agency (Office of Wastewater Enforcement and Compliance), Washington, DC.
122. Vacca G., Wand H., Nikolausz M., Kuschk P., Kastner M. Effect of plants and filter materials on bacteria removal in pilot-scale constructed wetlands. Water Res. 2005, 39(7):1361-1373.
123. Verlicchi P., Al Aukidy M., Galletti A., Zambello E., Zanni G., Masotti L. A project of reuse of reclaimed wastewater in the Po valley, Italy: polishing sequence and cost benefit analysis. J. Hydrol. 2012, 432:127-136.
124. Vymazal J. Removal of enteric bacteria in constructed treatment wetlands with emergent macrophytes: a review. J. Environ. Sci. Health A-Toxic/Hazard. Subst. Environ. Eng. 2005, 40(6-7):1355-1367.
125. Vymazal J. Constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment: five decades of experience. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2010, 45(1):61-69.
126. Wand H., Vacca G., Kuschk P., Krueger M., Kaestner M. Removal of bacteria by filtration in planted and non-planted sand columns. Water Res. 2007, 41(1):159-167.
127. Werker A., Dougherty J., McHenry J., Van Loon W. Treatment variability for wetland wastewater treatment design in cold climates. Ecol. Eng. 2002, 19(1):1-11.
128. WHO Health guidelines for the use of wastewater in agriculture and aquaculture. Technical report series 1989, 778. World Health Organisation, Geneva.
129. Winward G.P., Avery L.M., Frazer-Williams R., Pidou M., Jeffrey P., Stephenson T., Jefferson B. A study of the microbial quality of grey water and an evaluation of treatment technologies for reuse. Ecol. Eng. 2008, 32(2):187-197.
130. Winward G.P., Avery L.M., Stephenson T., Jefferson B. Chlorine disinfection of grey water for reuse: effect of organics and particles. Water Res. 2008, 42(1):483-491.
131. WHO Guidelines for the safe use of wastewater, excreta and greywater. Volume 2: wastewater use in agriculture http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/wastewater/gsuww/en/index.html.