Unit process wetlands for removal of trace organic contaminants and pathogens from municipal wastewater effluents

Environmental Engineering Science

Volumn 30, Issue 8, 2013, Pages 421-436

  Jasper, Justin T ^a,b   Nguyen, Mi T ^a,b   Jones, Zackary L ^a,c   Ismail, Niveen S ^a,d   Sedlak, David L ^a,b   Sharp, Jonathan O ^a,c   Luthy, Richard G ^a,d   Horne, Alex J ^a,b   Nelson, Kara L ^a,b  

^a NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION   (United States)

^b 109 McLaughlin Hall   (United States)

^c Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering   (United States)

^d Stanford University   (United States)

Author keywords

critical review; municipal wastewater; pathogens; trace organic contaminants; treatment wetlands

Indexed keywords

ANCILLARY BENEFITS; CONSTRUCTED WETLANDS; CRITICAL REVIEW; ENERGY REQUIREMENTS; MUNICIPAL WASTEWATERS; NATURAL TREATMENT; TRACE ORGANIC CONTAMINANTS; TREATMENT WETLANDS;

CONTAMINATION; EFFLUENTS; PATHOGENS; PHOTOLYSIS; WATER SUPPLY;

WETLANDS;

TRACE METAL;

ARTICLE; BIOTRANSFORMATION; CONSTRUCTED WETLAND; EFFLUENT; MICROBIAL CONTAMINATION; PHOTOLYSIS; PREDATION; SEDIMENTATION; WASTE COMPONENT REMOVAL; WASTE WATER MANAGEMENT; WATER CONTAMINATION;

EID: 84887780442     PISSN: 10928758     EISSN: 15579018     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1089/ees.2012.0239     Document Type: Article

References (199)

1. Ahn C. Gillevet P.M. and Sikaroodi M. (2007). Molecular characterization of microbial communities in treatment microcosm wetlands as influenced by macrophytes and phosphorus loading. Ecol. Indic. 7 852.
2. Alvord H.H. and Kadlec R.H. (1995). The interaction of atrazine with wetland sorbents. Ecol. Eng. 5 469.
3. Ansa E.D.O. Lubberding H.J. Ampofo J.A. and Gijzen H.J. (2011). The role of algae in the removal of Escherichia coli in a tropical eutrophic lake. Ecol. Eng. 37 317.
4. Arias C. Brix H. and Johansen N.H. (2003). Phosphorus removal from municipal wastewater in an experimental two-stage vertical flow constructed wetland system equipped with a calcite filter. Water Sci. Technol. 48 51.
5. Bacchetti De Gregoris T. Aldred N. Clare A.S. and Burgess J.G. (2011). Improvement of phylum-and class-specific primers for real-time PCR quantification of bacterial taxa. J. Microbiol. Methods 86 351.
6. Barker J. and Brown M. (1994). Trojan horses of the microbial world. Microbiology 140 1253.
7. Bastviken S.K. Eriksson P.G. Premrov A. and Tonderski K. (2005). Potential denitrification in wetland sediments with different plant species detritus. Ecol. Eng. 25 183.
8. Beaver J. Miller-Lemke A. and Acton J. (1998). Midsummer zooplankton assemblages in four types of wetlands in the Upper Midwest USA. Hydrobiologia 380 209.
9. Boon P. Virtue P. and Nichols P. (1996). Microbial consortia in wetland sediments. Mar. Freshwater Res. 47 27.
10. Boutilier L. Jamieson R. Gordon R. Lake C. and Hart W. (2009). Adsorption sedimentation and inactivation of E. coli within wastewater treatment wetlands. Water Res. 43 4370.
11. Boreen A.L. Arnold W.A. and McNeill K. (2004). Photochemical fate of sulfa drugs in the aquatic environment: sulfa drugs containing five-membered heterocyclic groups. Environ. Sci. Technol. 38 3933.
12. Bosshard F. Bucheli M. Meur Y. and Egli T. (2010). The respiratory chain is the cell's Achilles' heel during UVA inactivation in Escherichia coli. Microbiology 156 2006.
13. Breitholtz M. Nä slund M. Stra° e D. Borg H. Grabic R. and Fick J. (2012). An evaluation of free water surface wetlands as tertiary sewage water treatment of micro-pollutants. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Safe. 78 63.
14. Brezonik P.L. and Fulkerson-Brekken J. (1998). Nitrate-induced photolysis in natural waters: controls on concentrations of hydroxyl radical photo-intermediates by natural scavenging agents. Environ. Sci. Technol. 32 3004.
15. Brix H. (1997). Do macrophytes play a role in constructed treatment wetlands Water Sci. Technol. 35 11.
16. Burns K.A. and Smith J.L. (1981). Biological monitoring of ambient water quality: The case for using bivalves as sentinel organisms for monitoring petroleum pollution in coastal waters. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 13 433.
17. Buth J.M. Grandbois M. Vikesland P.J. McNeill K. and Arnold W.A. (2009). Aquatic photochemistry of chlorinated triclosan derivatives. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 28 2555.
18. Buth J.M. Steen P.O. Sueper C. Blumentritt D. Vikesland P.J. Arnold W.A. and McNeill K. (2010). Dioxin photoproducts of triclosan and its chlorinated derivatives in sediment cores. Environ. Sci. Technol. 44 4545.
19. Buttner J.K. (1986). Corbicula as a biological filter and polyculture organism in catfish rearing ponds. Prog. Fish-Cult. 48 136.
20. Calheiros C.S.C. Duque A.F. Moura A. Henriques I.S. Correia A. Rangel A.O.S.S. and Castro P.M.L. (2009). Changes in the bacterial community structure in two-stage constructed wetlands with different plants for industrial wastewater treatment. Bioresour. Technol. 100 3228.
21. Camacho-Muñ oz D. Mart́n J. Santos J. Aparicio I. and Alonso E. (2011). Effectiveness of conventional and low-cost wastewater treatments in the removal of pharmaceutically active compounds. Water Air Soil Pollut. 223 2611.
22. Canonica S. Jans U. Stemmler K. and Hoigné J. (1995). Transformation kinetics of phenols in water: Photosensitization by dissolved natural organic material and aromatic ketones. Environ. Sci. Technol. 29 1822.
23. Canonica S. Kohn T. Mac M. Real F.J. Wirz J. and Von Gunten U. (2005). Photosensitizer method to determine rate constants for the reaction of carbonate radical with organic compounds. Environ. Sci. Technol. 39 9182.
24. Costanza R. D'Arge R. De Groot R. Farber S. Grasso M. Hannon B. Limburg K. Naeem S. O'Neill R.V. Paruelo J. Raskin R.G. Sutton P. and van den Belt M. (1997). The value of the world's ecosystem services and natural capital. Nature 387 253.
25. Cotroneo C. Csoboth L. Yozzo D.J. Doss T. Will B. and McLaughlin J. (2011). Working toward nutrient reduction in a eutrophic urban estuary: Ribbed mussel biofiltration in Jamaica Bay presented at the 4th National Conference on Ecosystem Restoration Baltimore MD.
26. Curtis T.P. Mara D.D. and Silva S.A. (1992). Influence of pH oxygen and humic substances on ability of sunlight To damage fecal coliforms in waste stabilization pond water. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 58 1335.
27. D'Angelo E. (2003). Wetlands: Biodegradation of Organic Pollutants. In G. Bitton Ed. Encyclopedia of Environmental Microbiology. Hoboken NJ: John Wiley & Sons Inc. p. 3401.
28. Dai X. and Boll J. (2006). Settling velocity of Cryptosporidium parvum and Giardia lamblia. Water Res. 40 1321.
29. Daughton C.G. and Ternes T.A. (1999). Pharmaceuticals and personal care products in the environment: agents of subtle change Environ. Health Perspect. 107 907.
30. Davies-Colley R.J. (2005). Pond disinfection. In A. Shilton Ed. Pond Treatment Technology. London: IWA Publishing p. 101.
31. Davies-Colley R.J. Donnison A.M. and Speed D.J. (2000). Towards a mechanistic understanding of pond disinfection. Water Sci. Technol. 42 149.
32. Davies-Colley R.J. Donnison A.M. Speed D.J. Ross C.M. and Nagels J.W. (1999). Inactivation of faecal indicator microorganisms in waste stabilisation ponds. Water Res. 33 1220.
33. Decamp O. and Warren A. (1998). Bacterivory in ciliates isolated from constructed wetlands (reed beds) used for wastewater treatment. Water Res. 32 1989.
34. DeJournett T.D. Arnold W.A. and LaPara T.M. (2007). The characterization and quantification of methanotrophic bacterial populations in constructed wetland sediments using PCR targeting 16S rRNA gene fragments. Appl. Soil Ecol. 35 648.
35. Dobor J. Varga M. and Záray G. (2012). Biofilm controlled sorption of selected acidic drugs on river sediments characterized by different organic carbon content. Chemosphere 87 105.
36. Drouillard K.G. Chan S. O'Rourke S. Douglas Haffner G. and Letcher R.J. (2007). Elimination of 10 polybrominateddiphenyl ether (PBDE) congeners and selected polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) from the freshwater mussel Elliptio complanata. Chemosphere 69 362.
37. Emerson D. Weiss J.V. and Megonigal J.P. (1999). Ironoxidizing bacteria are associated with ferric hydroxide precipitates (Fe-plaque) on the roots of wetland plants. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 65 2758.
38. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) 1993 Subsurface Flow Constructed Wetlands for Waste Water Treatment Cincinnati OH.
39. EPA. 2000a). Constructed Wetlands Treatment of Municipal Wastewaters. Cincinnati OH. EPA.
40. EPA. (2000b). Guiding Principles for Constructed Treatment Wetlands: Providing for Water Quality and Wildlife Habitat. Cincinnati OH.
41. Falabi J.A. Gerba C.P. and Karpiscak M.M. (2002). Giardia and Cryptosporidium removal from waste-water by a duckweed (Lemnagibba L.) covered pond. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 34 384.
42. Faulwetter J.L. Gagnon V. Sundberg C. Chazarenc F. Burr M.D. Brisson J. Camper A.K. and Stein O.R. (2009). Microbial processes influencing performance of treatment wetlands: A review. Ecol. Eng. 35 987.
43. Fayer R. Graczyk T.K. Lewis E.J. Trout J.M. and Farley C.A. (1998). Survival of infectious Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts in seawater and eastern oysters (Crassostrea virginica) in the Chesapeake Bay. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 64 1070.
44. Fayer R. Trout J.M. Walsh E. and Cole R. (2000). Rotifers ingest oocysts of Cryptosporidium parvum. J. Eukaryot. Microbiol. 47 161.
45. Fleming-Singer M.S. and Horne A.J. (2006). Balancing wildlife needs and nitrate removal in constructed wetlands. Ecol. Eng. 26 147.
46. Fletcher M. and Marshall K. (1982). Are solid surfaces of ecological significance to aquatic bacteria Adv. Microb. Ecol. 6 199.
47. Florida Department of Environmental Protection. (2011). Domestic wastewater-Orlando Easterly Wetlands. Available at: www.dep.state.fl.us/water/ wastewater/dom/oreastwet.htm (accessed July 22, 2013).
48. Fortin D. Goulet R. and Roy M. (2000). Seasonal cycling of Fe and S in a constructed wetland: The role of sulfate-reducing bacteria. Geomicrobiol. J. 17 221.
49. Francoeur S.N. Schaecher M. Neely R.K. and Kuehn K.A. (2006). Periphytic photosynthetic stimulation of extracellular enzyme activity in aquatic microbial communities associated with decaying Typha litter. Microb. Ecol. 52 662.
50. Fuchs V.J. Mihelcic J.R. and Gierke J.S. (2011). Life cycle assessment of vertical and horizontal flow constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment considering nitrogen and carbon greenhouse gas emissions. Water Res. 45 2073.
51. Gagnon V. Chazarenc F. Comeau Y. and Brisson J. (2007). Influence of macrophyte species on microbial density and activity in constructed wetlands. Water Sci. Technol. 56 249.
52. Gearheart R.A. (1999). The use of free surface constructed wetland as an alternative process treatment train to meet unrestricted water reclamation standards. Water Sci. Technol. 40 375.
53. Gerba C.P. Thurston J.A. Falabi J.A. Watt P.M. and Karpiscak M.M. (1999). Optimization of artificial wetland design for removal of indicator microorganisms and pathogenic protozoa. Water Sci. Technol. 40 363.
54. Gerecke A.C. Canonica S. Müller S.R. Schä rer M. and Schwarzenbach R.P. (2001). Quantification of dissolved nat-ural organic matter (DOM) mediated phototransformation of phenylurea herbicides in lakes. Environ. Sci. Technol. 35 3915.
55. Gersberg R.M. Gearheart R.A. and Ives M. (1989). Pathogen removal in constructed wetlands. In D.A. Hammer Ed. Constructed Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment; Municipal Industrial and Agricultural. Chelsea MI: Lewis p. 431.
56. Gersberg R.M. Lyon S.R. Brenner R. and Elkins B.V. (1987). Fate of viruses in artificial wetlands. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 53 731.
57. Gianfreda L. and Rao M.A. (2004). Potential of extra cellular enzymes in remediation of polluted soils. Enzyme Microb. Technol. 35 339.
58. Golet E.M. Xifra I. Siegrist H. Alder A.C. and Giger W. (2003). Environmental exposure assessment of fluoroquinolone antibacterial agents from sewage to soil. Environ. Sci. Technol. 37 3243.
59. Graczyk T.K. Conn D.C. Marcogliese D.M. Graczyk H.G. and De Lafontaine Y. (2003). Accumulation of human waterborne parasites by zebra mussels (Dreissena polymorpha) and Asian freshwater clams (Corbicula fluminea). Parasitol. Res. 89 107.
60. Graczyk T.K. Girouard A.S. Tamang L. Nappier S.P. and Schwab K.J. (2006). Recovery bioaccumulation and inactivation of human waterborne pathogens by the Chesapeake Bay nonnative oyster Crassostrea ariakensis. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 72 3390.
61. Graczyk T.K. Thompson R.C. Fayer R. Adams P. Morgan U.M. and Lewis E.J. (1999). Giardia duodenalis cysts of genotype A recovered from clams in the Chesapeake Bay subestuary Rhode River. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 61 526.
62. Gray J.L. and Sedlak D.L. (2005). The fate of estrogenic hormones in an engineered treatment wetland with dense macrophytes. Water Environ. Res. 77 24.
63. Gudimov A.V. (2002). Zooremediation a new biotechnology solution for shoreline protection and cleanup. In Proceedings of the 25th Arctic and Marine Oil Spill Program (AMOP) Technical Seminar. Ottawa Canada: Environment Canada.
64. Gutknecht J.L.M. Goodman R.M. and Balser T.C. (2006). Linking soil process and microbial ecology in freshwater wetland ecosystems. Plant Soil 289 17.
65. Haag W.R. and Hoigné J. (1986). Singlet oxygen in surface waters. 3. Photochemical formation and steady-state concentrations in various types of waters. Environ. Sci. Technol. 20 341.
66. Hahn M.W. and Hö fle M.G. (2001). Grazing of protozoa and its effect on populations of aquatic bacteria. FEMS Microbiol. Ecol. 35 113.
67. Haines K.C. (1979). The use of Corbicula as a clarifying agent in experimental tertiary sewage treatment process on St. Croix US Virgin Islands. In Proc. 1st International Corbicula Symposium. Texas Christian University Research Foundation.
68. Hammer D.A. and Knight R.L. (1994). Designing constructed wetlands for nitrogen removal. Water Sci. Technol. 29 15.
69. Harvey J.W. Saiers J.W. and Newlin J.T. (2005). Solute transport and storage mechanisms in wetlands of the Everglades south Florida. Water Resour. Res. 41.
70. Haven D.S. and Morales-Alamo R. (1966). Aspects of biodeposition by oysters and other invertebrate filter feeders. Limnol. Oceanogr. 11 487.
71. Herskowitz J. (1986). Town of Listowel Artificial Marsh Project. Toronto Canada: Ontario Ministry of the Environment.
72. Hijosa-Valsero M. Matamoros V. Pedescoll A. Mart́n-Villacorta J. Bécares E. Garća J. and Bayona J.M. (2011). Evaluation of primary treatment and loading regimes in the removal of pharmaceuticals and personal care products from urban wastewaters by subsurface-flow constructed wetlands. Int. J. Environ. Anal. Chem. 91 632.
73. Hijosa-Valsero M. Matamoros V. Sidrach-Cardona R. Mart́n-Villacorta J. Bécares E. and Bayona J.M. (2010). Comprehensive assessment of the design configuration of constructed wetlands for the removal of pharmaceuticals and personal care products from urban wastewaters. Water Res. 44 3669.
74. Hill B.H. Elonen C.M. Jicha T.M. Cotter A.M. Trebitz A.S. and Danz N.P. (2006). Sediment microbial enzyme activity as an indicator of nutrient limitation in Great Lakes coastal wetlands. Freshwater Biol. 51 1670.
75. Hill V.R. and Sobsey M.D. (2001). Removal of Salmonella and microbial indicators in constructed wetlands treating swine wastewater. Water Sci. Technol. 44 215.
76. Horne A.J. and Fleming-Singer M.S. (2005). Phytoremediation using constructed treatment wetlands: An overview. In M. Fingerman and R. Nagabhushanam Eds. Bioremediation of Aquatic and Terrestrial Ecosystems. Enfield NH: Science Publishers p. 329.
77. Howell C.J. Crohn D.M. and Omary M. (2005). Simulating nutrient cycling and removal through treatment wetlands in arid/semiarid environments. Ecol. Eng. 25 25.
78. Huang J. and Mabury S.A. (2000). The role of carbonate radical in limiting the persistence of sulfur-containing chemicals in sunlit natural waters. Chemosphere 41 1775.
79. Hull M.S. Chaurand P. Rose J. Auffan M. Bottero J.-Y. Jones J.C. Schultz I.R. and Vikesland P.J. (2011). Filterfeeding bivalves store and biodepositcolloidally stable gold nanoparticles. Environ. Sci. Technol. 45 6592.
80. Hussain S. and Prasher S. (2011). Understanding the sorption of ionophoric pharmaceuticals in a treatment wetland. Wetlands 31 563.
81. Ibekwe A.M. Lyon S.R. Leddy M. and Jacobson-Meyers M. (2006). Impact of plant density and microbial composition on water quality from a free water surface constructed wetland. J. Appl. Microbiol. 102 921.
82. Imfeld G. Braeckevelt M. Kuschk P. and Richnow H.H. (2009). Monitoring and assessing processes of organic chemicals removal in constructed wetlands. Chemosphere 74 349.
83. Ishii S. Yan T. Vu H. Hansen D.L. Hicks R.E. and Sadowsky M.J. (2010). Factors controlling long-term survival and growth of naturalized Escherichia coli populations in temperate field soils. Microb. Environ. 25 8.
84. Jagger J. (1985). Solar-UV Actions on Living Cells. New York: Praeger.
85. Jasper J.T. and Sedlak D.L. (2013). Phototransformation of wastewater-derived trace organic contaminants in open-water unit process treatment wetlands. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2013 Mar 7 [Epub ahead of print]; DOI: 10.1021/es304334w.
86. Jiang C. Li S.-X. Luo F.-F. Jin K. Wang Q. Hao Z.-Y. Wu L.-L. Zhao G.-C. Ma G.-F. Shen P.-H. Tang X.-L. and Wu B. (2011). Biochemical characterization of two novel b-glucosidase genes by metagenome expression cloning. Bioresour. Technol. 102 3272.
87. Kadlec R.H. (1994). Detention and mixing in free water wetlands. Ecol. Eng. 3 345.
88. Kadlec R.H. (2000). The inadequacy of first-order treatment wetland models. Ecol. Eng. 15 105.
89. Kadlec R.H. (2012). Constructed marshes for nitrate removal. Crit. Rev. Environ. Sci. Technol. 42 934.
90. Kadlec R.H. and Wallace S. (2009). Treatment Wetlands 2nd edition. Boca Raton: CRC Press.
91. Karpiscak M.M. Sanchez L.R. Freitas R.J. and Gerba C.P. (2001). Removal of bacterial indicators and pathogens from dairy wastewater by a multi-component treatment system. Water Sci. Technol. 44 813.
92. Kasanavia T. Vu D. and Sabatini D.A. (1999). Fluorescent dye and media properties affecting sorption and tracer selection. Ground Water 37 376.
93. Keefe S.H. Barber L.B. Runkel R.L. Ryan J.N. McKnight D.M. and Wass R.D. (2004). Conservative and reactive solute transport in constructed wetlands. Water Resour. Res. 40 W01201.
94. Kjellin J. Worman A. Johansson H. and Lindahl A. (2007). Controlling factors forwater residence time and flowpatterns in Ekeby treatment wetland Sweden. Adv. Water Resour. 30 838.
95. Knight R.L. (1987). Effuent distribution and basin design for enhanced pollutant assimilation by freshwater wetlands. In K.R. Reddy and W.H. Smith Eds. Aquatic Plants for Water Treatment and Resource Recovery. Orlando FL: Magnolia Publishing Company p. 913.
96. Kohn T. and Nelson K.L. (2007). Sunlight-mediated inactivation of MS2 coliphage via exogenous singlet oxygen produced by sensitizers in natural waters. Environ. Sci. Technol. 41 192.
97. Kolpin D.W. Furlong E.T. Meyer M.T. Thurman E.M. Zaugg S.D. Barber L.B. and Buxton H.T. (2002). Pharmaceuticals hormones and other organic wastewater contaminants in U.S. streams 1999-2000: A national reconnaissance. Environ. Sci. Technol. 36 1202.
98. Kruger E.L. Coats J.R. and Zhu B.E. (1996). Relative mobilities of atrazine five atrazine degradates metolachlor and simazine in soils of Iowa. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 15 691.
99. Kryger J. and Riisga° rd H.U. (1988). Filtration rate capacities in 6 species of European freshwater bivalves. Oecologia 77 34.
100. Ksoll W.B. Ishii S. Sadowsky M.J. and Hicks R.E. (2007). Presence and sources of fecal coliform bacteria in epilithic periphyton communities of Lake Superior. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 73 3771.
101. Kyambadde J. Kansiime F. Gumaelius L. and Dalhammar G. (2004). A comparative study of Cyperus papyrus and Miscanthidium violaceum-based constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment in a tropical climate. Water Res. 38 475.
102. Lam M.W. and Mabury S.A. (2005). Photodegradation of the pharmaceuticals atorvastatin carbamazepine levofloxacin and sulfamethoxazole in natural waters. Aquat. Sci. 67 177.
103. Lam M.W. Tantuco K. and Mabury S.A. (2003). PhotoFate: A new approach in accounting for the contribution of indirect photolysis of pesticides and pharmaceuticals in surface waters. Environ. Sci. Technol. 37 899.
104. Latch D.E. Stender B.L. Packer J.L. Arnold W.A. and McNeill K. (2003). Photochemical fate of pharmaceuticals in the environment: Cimetidine and ranitidine. Environ. Sci. Technol. 37 3342.
105. Li X.-N. Song H.-L. Li W. Lu X.-W. and Nishimura O. (2010). An integrated ecological floating-bed employing plant freshwater clam and biofilm carrier for purification of eutrophic water. Ecol. Eng. 36 382.
106. Lightbody A.F. Avener M.E. and Nepf H.M. (2008). Observations of short-circuiting flow paths within a freesurface wetland in Augusta Georgia USA. Limnol. Oceanogr. 53 1040.
107. Lightbody A.F. Nepf H.M. and Bays J.S. (2007). Mixing in deep zones within constructed treatment wetlands. Ecol. Eng. 29 209.
108. Lightbody A.F. Nepf H.M. and Bays J.S. (2009). Modeling the hydraulic effect of transverse deep zones on the performance of short-circuiting constructed treatment wetlands. Ecol. Eng. 35 754.
109. Lim M.-H. Snyder S.A. and Sedlak D.L. (2008). Use of biodegradable dissolved organic carbon (BDOC) to assess the potential for transformation of wastewater-derived contaminants in surface waters. Water Res. 42 2943.
110. Lin A.Y.-C. Debroux J.-F. Cunningham J.A. and Reinhard M. (2003). Comparison of rhodamine WT and bromide in the determination of hydraulic characteristics of constructed wetlands. Ecol. Eng. 20 75.
111. Lin A.Y.-C. and Reinhard M. (2005). Photodegradation of common environmental pharmaceuticals and estrogens in river water. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 24 1303.
112. Llorens E. Matamoros V. Domingo V. Bayona J.M. and Garća J. (2009). Water quality improvement in a full-scale tertiary constructed wetland: Effects on conventional and specific organic contaminants. Sci. Total Environ. 407 2517.
113. Lu J. Huang Q. and Mao L. (2009). Removal of acetaminophen using enzyme-mediated oxidative coupling processes: I. Reaction rates and pathways. Environ. Sci. Technol. 43 7062.
114. MacIntyre M.E. Warner B.G. and Slawson R.M. (2006). Escherichia coli control in a surface flow treatment wetland. J. Water Health 4 211.
115. Malaviya P. and Singh A. (2012). Constructed wetlands for management of urban stormwater runoff. Crit. Rev. Environ. Sci. Technol. 42 2153.
116. Mandi L. Bouhoum K. and Ouazzani N. (1998). Application of constructed wetlands for domestic wastewater treatment in an arid climate. Water Sci. Technol. 38 379.
117. Mandi L. Houhoum B. Asmama S. and Schwartzbrod J. (1996). Wastewater treatment by reed beds. Water Res. 30 2009.
118. Martinez C.J. and Wise W.R. (2003). Hydraulic analysis of Orlando easterly wetland. J. Environ. Eng. 129 553.
119. Matamoros V. Arias C. Brix H. and Bayona J.M. (2007). Removal of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) from urban wastewater in a pilot vertical flow constructedwetland and a sand filter. Environ. Sci. Technol. 41 8171.
120. Matamoros V. Arias C. Brix H. and Bayona J.M. (2009). Preliminary screening of small-scale domestic wastewater treatment systems for removal of pharmaceutical and personal care products. Water Res. 43 55.
121. Matamoros V. and Bayona J.M. (2006). Elimination of pharmaceuticals and personal care products in subsurface flow constructed wetlands. Environ. Sci. Technol. 40 5811.
122. Matamoros V. and Bayona J.M. (2008). Behavior of emerging pollutants in constructed wetlands. In D. Barceló and M. Petrovic Eds. Emerging Contaminants from Industrial and Municipal Waste. Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer p. 199.
123. Matamoros V. Garća J. and Bayona J.M. (2005). Behavior of selected pharmaceuticals in subsurface flow constructed wetlands: A pilot-scale study. Environ. Sci. Technol. 39 5449.
124. Matamoros V. Garća J. and Bayona J.M. (2008). Organic micropollutant removal in a full-scale surface flow constructed wetland fed with secondary effluent. Water Res. 42 653.
125. McIvor A.L. (2004). Freshwater Mussels as Biofilters [Doctoral thesis]. United Kingdom: Pembroke College.
126. Meltz Steinberg K. and Levin B.R. (2007). Grazing protozoa and the evolution of the Escherichia coli O157. Proc. Biol. Sci. 274 1921.
127. Mendelssohn I.A. Kleiss B.A. and Wakeley J.S. (1995). Factors controlling the formation of oxidized root channels. Wetlands 15 37.
128. Miller P.L. and Chin Y.-P. (2002). Photoinduced degradation of carbaryl in a wetland surface water. J. Agric. Food Chem. 50 6758.
129. Miller P.L. and Chin Y.-P. (2005). Indirect photolysis promoted by natural and engineered wetland water constituents: Processes leading to alachlor degradation. Environ. Sci. Technol. 39 4454.
130. Mitsch W.J. and Gosselink J.G. (2007). Wetlands 4th edition. New York: John Wiley & Sons Inc.
131. Møhlenberg F. and Riisga°rd H.U. (1979). Filtration rate using a new indirect technique in thirteen species of suspensionfeeding bivalves. Mar. Biol. 54 143.
132. Moore M.T. Schulz R. Cooper C.M. Smith Jr. S. and Rodgers Jr. J.H. (2002). Mitigation of chlorpyrifos runoff using constructed wetlands. Chemosphere 46 827.
133. Mü nch C. Neu T. Kuschk P. and Rö ske I. (2007). The root surface as the definitive detail for microbial transformation processes in constructed wetlands-A biofilm characteristic. Water Sci. Technol. 56 271.
134. Nappier S.P. Graczyk T.K. and Schwab K.J. (2008). Bioaccumulation retention and depuration of enteric viruses by Crassostrea virginica and Crassostrea ariakensis oysters. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 74 6825.
135. U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). (2011). Ribbed mussels offer possible natural way to improve urban water quality. Woods Hole MA: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Available at: www.nefsc.noaa.gov/press-release/2011/SciSpot/SS11106/pilot-mussel-study-bronx- river.pdf (accessed March 7 2012).
136. Orange County Water District. (2013). Prado Wetlands. Available at: www.ocwd.com/Environment/PradoWetlands.aspx (accessed July 22 2013).
137. O'Rourke S. Drouillard K.G. and Haffner G.D. (2004). Determination of laboratory and field elimination rates of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in the freshwater mussel Elliptio complanata. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 47 74.
138. Park N. Vanderford B.J. Snyder S.A. Sarp S. Kim S.D. and Cho J. (2009). Effective controls of micropollutants included in wastewater effluent using constructed wetlands under anoxic condition. Ecol. Eng. 35 418.
139. Persson J. (2000). The hydraulic performance of ponds of various layouts. Urban Water 2 243.
140. Peven C.S. Uhler A.D. and Querzoli F.J. (1996). Caged mussels and semipermeable membrane devices as indicators of organic contaminant uptake in dorchester and duxbury bays. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 15 144.
141. Pollard P.C. (2010). Bacterial activity in plant (Schoenoplectus validus) biofilms of constructed wetlands. Water Res. 44 5939.
142. Porter A.J. (2011). Microbial Community Function in Freshwater Wetland Soils: Using Extracellular Enzyme Analysis to Study the Effect of Moisture and Vegetation [Masters thesis]. Richmond VA: Virginia Commonwealth University.
143. Proakis E. (2003). Pathogen removal in constructed wetlands focusing on biological predation and marine recreational water quality. Proc. Water Environ. Fed. 31-40 310.
144. Pruell R.J. Lake J.L. Davis W.R. and Quinn J.G. (1986). Uptake and depuration of organic contaminants by blue mussels (Mytilusedulis) exposed to environmentally contaminated sediment. Mar. Biol. 91 497.
145. Quiñ ónez-D́az M.J. Karpiscak M.M. Ellman E.D. and Gerba C.P. (2001). Removal of pathogenic and indicator microorganisms by a constructed wetland receiving untreated domestic wastewater. J. Environ. Sci. Health A Tox. Hazard. Subst. Environ. Eng. 36 1311.
146. Reddy K.R. and D'Angelo E.M. (1997). Biogeochemical indicators to evaluate pollutant removal efficiency in constructed wetlands. Water Sci. Technol. 35 1.
147. Reed S.H. Crites R.W. and Middlebrooks E.J. (1995). Natural Systems for Waste Management and Treatment 2nd edition. New York: McGraw-Hill.
148. Reichenberger S. Bach M. Skitschak A. and Frede H.-G. (2007). Mitigation strategies to reduce pesticide inputs into ground-and surface water and their effectiveness; A review. Sci. Total Environ. 384 1.
149. Reinhold D.M. Vishwanathan S. Park J.J. Oh D. and Michael Saunders F. (2010). Assessment of plant-driven removal of emerging organic pollutants by duckweed. Chemosphere 80 687.
150. Reinoso R. Torres L.A. and Bécares E. (2008). Efficiency of natural systems for removal of bacteria and pathogenic parasites from wastewater. Sci. Total Environ. 395 80.
151. Reyes-Contreras C. Matamoros V. Ruiz I. Soto M. and Bayona J.M. (2011). Evaluation of PPCPs removal in a combined anaerobic digester-constructed wetland pilot plant treating urban wastewater. Chemosphere 84 1200.
152. Rier S.T. Kuehn K.A. and Francoeur S.N. (2007). Algal regulation of extracellular enzyme activity in stream microbial communities associated with inert substrata and detritus. J. N. Am. Benthol. Soc. 26 439.
153. Riisga° rd H.U. (2001). On measurement of filtration rates in bivalves-The stony road to reliable data: Review and interpretation. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 211 275.
154. Romani A.M. Guasch H. Muñ oz I. Ruana J. Vilalta E. Schwartz T. Emtiazi F. and Sabater S. (2003). Biofilm structure and function and possible implications for riverine DOC dynamics. Microb. Ecol. 47 316.
155. Ryan C.C. Tan D.T. and Arnold W.A. (2011). Direct and indirect photolysis of sulfamethoxazole and trimethoprim in wastewater treatment plant effluent. Water Res. 45 1280.
156. Schwarzenbach R.P. Gschwend P.M. and Imboden D.M. (2003). Environmental Organic Chemistry 2nd edition. Hoboken NJ: John Wiley & Sons Inc.
157. Sengupta M.E. Thamsborg S.M. Andersen T.J. Olsen A. and Dalsgaard A. (2011). Sedimentation of helminth eggs in water. Water Res. 45 4651.
158. Shackle V.J. Freeman C. and Reynolds B. (2000). Carbon supply and the regulation of enzyme activity in constructed wetlands. Soil Biol. Biochem. 32 1935.
159. Shilton A. and Harrison J. (2003). Guidelines for the Hydraulic Design of Waste Stabilisation Ponds Website. Palmerston North New Zealand: Massey University.
160. Shpigel M. Gasith A. and Kimmel E. (1997). A biomechanical filter for treating fish-pond effluents. Aquaculture 152 103.
161. Silverman H. Achberger E.C. Lynn J.W. and Dietz T.H. (1995). Filtration and utilization of laboratory-cultured bacteria by Dreissena polymorpha Corbicula fluminea and Carunculina texasensis. Biol. Bull. 189 308.
162. Sinsabaugh R.L. (2010). Phenol oxidase peroxidase and organic matter dynamics of soil. Soil Biol. Biochem. 42 391.
163. Sirivedhin T. and Gray K.A. (2006). Factors affecting denitrification rates in experimental wetlands. Ecol. Eng. 26 167.
164. Snyder S.A. Westerhoff P. Yoon Y. and Sedlak D.L. (2003). Pharmaceuticals personal care products and endocrine disruptors in water: Implications for the water industry. Environ. Eng. Sci. 20 449.
165. Song H.-L. Yang X.-L. Nakano K. Nomura M. Nishimura O. and Li X.-N. (2011). Elimination of estrogens and estrogenic activity from sewage treatment works effluents in subsurface and surface flow constructed wetlands. Int. J. Environ. Anal. Chem. 91 600.
166. Song Z. Sun Q. Yu M. Zhou Y. Kong X. and Zhao Y. (2010). Seasonal variation and correlation of Escherichia coli and Salmonellae in a full-scale constructed wetland for wastewater treatment in China presented at the 4th International Conference on Bioinformatics and Biomedical Engineering (iCBBE).
167. Song Z.W. Wu L. Yang G. Xu M. and Wen S.P. (2008). Indicator microorganisms and pathogens removal function performed by copepods in constructed wetlands. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 81 459.
168. Stott R. May E. Matsushita E. and Warren A. (2001). Protozoan predation as a mechanism for the removal of Cryptosporidium oocysts from wastewaters in constructed wetlands. Water Sci. Technol. 44 191.
169. Stott R. and Tanner C.C. (2005). Influence of biofilm on removal of surrogate faecal microbes in a constructed wetland and maturation pond. Water Sci. Technol. 51 315.
170. Stuer-Lauridsen F. Birkved M. Hansen L.P. HoltenLü tzhøft H.-C. and Halling-Sørensen B. (2000). Environmental risk assessment of human pharmaceuticals in Denmark after normal therapeutic use. Chemosphere 40 783.
171. Suárez S. Carballa M. Omil F. and Lema J. (2008). How are pharmaceutical and personal care products (PPCPs) removed from urban wastewaters Rev. Environ. Sci. Biotechnol. 7 125.
172. Tarrant Regional Water District. (2013). Wetlands-Overview. Available at: www.trwd.com/wetlands (accessed July 22, 2013).
173. Ternes T.A. Herrmann N. Bonerz M. Knacker T. Siegrist H. and Joss A. (2004a). A rapid method to measure the solid-water distribution coefficient (Kd) for pharmaceuticals and musk fragrances in sewage sludge. Water Res. 38 4075.
174. Ternes T.A. Joss A. and Siegrist H. (2004b). Peer reviewed: Scrutinizing pharmaceuticals and personal care products in wastewater treatment. Environ. Sci. Technol. 38 392A.
175. Thomas V. McDonnell G. Denyer S.P. and Maillard J. (2010). Free-living amoebae and their intracellular pathogenic microorganisms. FEMS Microbiol. Rev. 34 231.
176. Thullen J.S. Sartoris J.J. and Nelson S.M. (2005). Managing vegetation in surface-flow wastewater-treatment wetlands for optimal treatment performance. Ecol. Eng. 25 583.
177. Tolls J. (2001). Sorption of veterinary pharmaceuticals in soils: A review. Environ. Sci. Technol. 35 3397.
178. Tront J.M. Reinhold D.M. Bragg A.W. and Saunders F.M. (2007). Uptake of halogenated phenols by aquatic plants. J. Environ. Eng. 133 955.
179. Trout J.M. Walsh E.J. and Fayer R. (2002). Rotifers ingest giardia cysts. J. Parisitol. 88 1038.
180. Truu M. Juhanson J. and Truu J. (2009). Microbial biomass activity and community composition in constructed wetlands. Sci. Total Environ. 407 3958.
181. Verrengia Guerrero N.R. Taylor M.G. Davies N.A. Lawrence M.A.M. Edwards P.A. Simkiss K. and Wider E.A. (2002). Evidence of differences in the biotransformation of organic contaminants in three species of freshwater invertebrates. Environ. Pollut. 117 523.
182. Vilchez-Vargas R. Junca H. and Pieper D.H. (2010). Metabolic networks microbial ecology and 'OMICS' technologies. Environ. Microbiol. 12 3089.
183. Vymazal J. (2005). Removal of enteric bacteria in constructed treatment wetlands with emergent macrophytes: A review. J. Environ. Sci. Health A Tox. Hazard. Subst. Environ. Eng. 40 1355.
184. Vymazal J. (2007). Removal of nutrients in various types of constructed wetlands. Sci. Total Environ. 380 48.
185. Vymazal J. (2009). The use constructed wetlands with horizontal sub-surface flow for various types of wastewater. Ecol. Eng. 35 1.
186. Vymazal J. (2010). Constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment: five decades of experience. Environ. Sci. Technol. 45 61.
187. Waltman E.L. Venables B.J. and Waller W.T. (2006). Triclosan in a North Texas wastewater treatment plant and the influent and effluent of an experimental constructed wetland. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 25 367.
188. Wang N. and Mitsch W.J. (2000). A detailed ecosystem model of phosphorus dynamics in created riparian wetlands. Ecol. Model. 126 101.
189. Wetzel R.G. (1983). Periphyton of Freshwater Ecosystems. The Hague The Netherlands: Dr. W. Junk Publishers.
190. Wick A. Fink G. Joss A. Siegrist H. and Ternes T.A. (2009). Fate of beta blockers and psycho-active drugs in conventional wastewater treatment. Water Res. 43 1060.
191. Winter J.E. (1978). A review on the knowledge of suspensionfeeding in lamellibranchiate bivalves with special reference to artificial aquaculture systems. Aquaculture 13 1.
192. Wörman A. and Kronnä s V. (2005). Effect of pond shape and vegetation heterogeneity on flow and treatment performance of constructed wetlands. J. Hydrol. 301 123.
193. Wright A.L. and Reddy K.R. (2001). Phosphorous loading effects on extracellular enzyme activity in everglades wetland soils. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 65 588.
194. Writer J.H. Ryan J.N. and Barber L.B. (2011). Role of biofilms in sorptive removal of steroidal hormones and 4-nonylphenol compounds from streams. Environ. Sci. Technol. 45 7275.
195. Wu Y. He J. and Yang L. (2010). Evaluating adsorption and biodegradation mechanisms during the removal of microcystin-RR by periphyton. Environ. Sci. Technol. 44 6319.
196. Yamamoto H. Nakamura Y. Moriguchi S. Nakamura Y. Honda Y. Tamura I. Hirata Y. Hayashi A. and Sekizawa J. (2009). Persistence and partitioning of eight selected pharmaceuticals in the aquatic environment: Laboratory photolysis biodegradation and sorption experiments. Water Res. 43 351.
197. Zepp R.G. Hoigné J. and Bader H. (1987). Nitrate-induced photooxidation of trace organic chemicals in water. Environ. Sci. Technol. 21 443.
198. Zepp R.G. Wolfe N.L. Baughman G.L. and Hollis R.C. (1977). Singlet oxygen in natural waters. Nature 267 421.
199. Zhang D.Q. Gersberg R.M. Hua T. Zhu J. Tuan N.A. and Tan S.K. (2012). Pharmaceutical removal in tropical subsurface flow constructed wetlands at varying hydraulic loading rates. Chemosphere 87 273.