Magmatic and tectonic extension at mid-ocean ridges: 1. Controls on fault characteristics

Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems

Volumn 9, Issue 8, 2008, Pages

  Behn, Mark D ^a   Ito, Garrett ^b  

^a WOODS HOLE OCEANOGRAPHIC INSTITUTION   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF HAWAII   (United States)

Author keywords

Faulting; Magmatism; Mid ocean ridges; Numerical modeling

Indexed keywords

EID: 84940592837     PISSN: 15252027     EISSN: 15252027     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1029/2008GC001965     Document Type: Article

References (107)

1. Abdallah, A., et al. (1979), Relevance of Afar seismicity and volcanism to the mechanics of accreting plate boundaries, Nature, 282, 17-23, doi:10.1038/282017a0.
2. Bach, W., N. R. Banerjee, H. J. B. Dick, and E. T. Baker (2002), Discovery of ancient and active hydrothermal systems along the ultra-slow spreading Southwest Indian Ridge 10-16°E, Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst., 3(7), 1044, doi:10.1029/2001GC000279.
3. Ballard, R. D., and T. H. van Andel (1977), Morphology and tectonics of the inner rift valley at 36°50′N on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 88, 507-530,doi:10.1130/0016-7606(1977)88<507:MATOTI>2.0.CO;2.
4. Barclay, A. H., D. R. Toomey, and S. C. Solomon (2001), Microearthquake characteristics and crustal Vp/Vs structure at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, 35°N, J. Geophys. Res., 106, 2017-2034, doi:10.1029/2000JB900371.
5. Behn, M. D., W. R. Buck, and I. S. Sacks (2006), Topographic controls on dike injection in volcanic rift zones, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 246, 188-196, doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2006.04.005. (Pubitemid 43842943)
6. Behn, M. D., M. S. Boettcher, and G. Hirth (2007), On the thermal structure of oceanic transform faults, Geology, 35, 307-310, doi:10.1130/G23112A.1. (Pubitemid 46554694)
7. Blacic, T. M., G. Ito, J. P. Canales, R. S. Detrick, and J. Sinton (2004), Constructing the crust along the Galapagos Spreading Center 91.3°-95.5°W: Correlation of seismic layer 2A with axial magma lens and topographic characteristics, J. Geophys. Res., 109, B10310, doi:10.1029/ 2004JB003066. (Pubitemid 40098502)
8. Blackman, D. K., J. R. Cann, B. Janssen, and D. K. Smith (1998), Origin of extensional core complexes: Evidence from the mid-Atlantic ridge Atlantis Fracture Zone, J. Geophys. Res., 103, 21,315-21,333, doi:10.1029/98JB01756. (Pubitemid 29126320)
9. Buck, W. R. (1993), Effect of lithospheric thickness on the formation of high- and low-angle normal faults, Geology, 21, 933-936, doi:10.1130/0091- 7613(1993)021<0933:EOLTOT>2.3.CO;2.
10. Buck, W. R., L. L. Lavier, and A. N. B. Poliakov (2005), Modes of faulting at mid-ocean ridges, Nature, 434, 719-723, doi:10.1038/nature03358. (Pubitemid 40558363)
11. Bull, J. M., et al. (2003), Fault and magmatic interaction within Iceland's western rift over the last 9 kyr, Geophys. J. Int., 154, F1-F8, doi:10.1046/j.1365-246X.2003.01990.x. (Pubitemid 36881959)
12. Canales, J. P., J. J. Danobeitia, R. S. Detrick, E. E. E. Hooft, R. Bartolomé, and D. F. Naar (1997), Variations in axial morphology along the Galápagos spreading center and the influence of the Galápagos hotspot, J. Geophys. Res., 102(B12), 27,341-27,354, doi:10.1029/97JB01633.
13. Canales, J. P., R. S. Detrick, J. Lin, J. A. Collins, and D. R. Toomey (2000), Crustal and upper mantle seismic structure beneath the rift mountains and across a nontransform offset at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (35°N), J. Geophys. Res., 105, 2699-2719, doi:10.1029/1999JB900379.
14. Canales, J. P., R. S. Detrick, S. M. Carbotte, G. M. Kent, J. B. Diebold, A. Harding, J. Babcock, M. R. Nedimoviæ, and E. van Ark (2005), Upper crustal structure and axial topography at intermediate spreading ridges: Seismic constraints from the southern Juan de Fuca Ridge, J. Geophys. Res., 110, B12104, doi:10.1029/2005JB003630. (Pubitemid 43167909)
15. Canales, J. P., R. A. Sohn, and B. J. deMartin (2007), Crustal structure of the Trans-Atlantic Geotraverse (TAG) segment (Mid-Atlantic Ridge, 2626°10′N): Implications for the nature of hydrothermal circulation and detachment faulting at slow spreading ridges, Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst., 8, Q08004, doi:10.1029/2007GC001629.
16. Cann, J. R., M. R. Strens, and A. Rice (1985), A simple magma-driven thermal balance model for the formation of volcanogenic massive sulphides, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 76, 123-134, doi:10.1016/0012-821X(85)90153-0.
17. Cann, J. R., et al. (1997), Corrugated slip surfaces formed at ridge-transform intersections on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, Nature, 385, 329-332, doi:10.1038/385329a0. (Pubitemid 27053100)
18. Cannat, M. (1993), Emplacement of mantle rocks in the seafloor at mid-ocean ridges, J. Geophys. Res., 98, 4163-4172, doi:10.1029/92JB02221.
19. Cannat, M., et al. (1995), Thin crust, ultramafic exposures, and rugged faulting patterns at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (22°-24°N), Geology, 23, 49-52, doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1995)023<0049:TCUEAR>2.3.CO;2.
20. Cannat,M.,Y. Lagabrielle, H. Bougault, J. Casey, N. de Coutures, L. Dmitriev, and Y. Fouquet (1997), Ultramafic and gabbroic exposures of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge: Geological mapping of the 15°N region, Tectonophysics, 279, 193-213.
21. Cannat, M., J. Cann, and J. Maclennan (2004), Some hard rock constraints on the supply of heat to mid-ocean ridges, in Mid-Ocean Ridges: Hydrothermal Interactions Between the Lithosphere and Oceans, Geophys. Monogr. Ser., vol.148, edited by C. R. German et al., pp. 111-149, AGU, Washington, D. C.
22. Carbotte, S. M., et al. (2006), Rift topography linked to magmatism at the intermediate spreading Juan de Fuca Ridge, Geology, 34, 209-212, doi:10.1130/G21969.1.
23. Chadwick, W. W., and R. W. Embley (1998), Graben formation associated with recent dike intrusions and volcanic eruptions on the mid-ocean ridge, J. Geophys. Res., 103, 9807-9825, doi:10.1029/97JB02485.
24. Charlou, J. L., J. P. Donval, Y. Fouquet, P. Jean-Baptiste, and N. Holm (2002), Geochemistry of high H2 and CH4 vent fluids issuing from ultramafic rocks at the Rainbow hydrothermal field (36°14′N, MAR), Chem. Geol., 191, 345-359, doi:10.1016/S0009-2541(02)00134-1. (Pubitemid 35369113)
25. Chen, Y., and W. J. Morgan (1990), A nonlinear rheology model for mid-ocean ridge axis topography, J. Geophys. Res., 95, 17,583-17,604, doi:10.1029/JB095iB11p17583.
26. Cherkashev, G. A., A. M. Ashadze, and A. V. Gebruk (2000), New fields with manifestations of hydrothermal activity in the Logatchev area (14°N, Mid Atlantic Ridge), InterRidge News, 9, 26-27.
27. Connelly, D. P., C. R. German, M. Asada, K. Okino, A. Egorov, T. Naganuma, N. Pimenov, G. Cherkashev, and K. Tamaki (2007), Hydrothermal activity on the ultra-slow spreading southern Knipovich Ridge, Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst., 8, Q08013, doi:10.1029/2007GC001652.
28. Cundall, P. A. (1982), Adaptive density-scaling for timeexplicit calculations, in 4th International Conference on Numerical Methods in Geomechanics, Edmonton, Canada, vol.1, pp. 23-26, A. A. Balkema, Rotterdam, Netherlands.
29. Cundall, P. A. (1989), Numerical experiments on localization in frictional materials, Ing. Arch., 59, 148-159, doi:10.1007/BF00538368.
30. Curewitz, D., and J. A. Karson (1998), Geological consequences of dike intrusion at mid-ocean ridge spreading centers, in Faulting and Magmatism at Mid-Ocean Ridges, Geophys. Monogr. Ser., vol.106, edited by W. R. Buck et al., pp. 117-136, AGU, Washington, D. C.
31. deMartin, B. J., R. A. Sohn, J. P. Canales, and S. E. Humphris (2007), Kinematics and geometry of active detachment faulting beneath the Trans-Atlantic Geotraverse (TAG) hydrothermal field on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, Geology, 35, 711-714, doi:10.1130/G23718A.1. (Pubitemid 47289088)
32. Detrick, R. S., et al. (1987), Multichannel seismic imaging of the crustal magma chamber along the East Pacific Rise, Nature, 326, 35-41, doi:10.1038/326035a0.
33. Detrick, R. S., H. D. Needham, and V. Renard (1995), Gravity anomalies and crustal thickness variations along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge between 33°N and 40°N, J. Geophys. Res., 100, 3767-3787, doi:10.1029/94JB02649.
34. Detrick, R. S., J. M. Sinton, G. Ito, J. P. Canales, M. Behn, T. Blacic, B. Cushman, J. E. Dixon, D. W. Graham, and J. J. Mahoney (2002), Correlated geophysical, geochemical, and volcanological manifestations of plume-ridge interaction along the Galápagos Spreading Center, Geochem.Geophys. Geosyst., 3(10), 8501, doi:10.1029/2002GC000350.
35. Dick, H. J. B., et al. (1991), Tectonic evolution of the Atlantis II Fracture Zone, Proc. Ocean Drill. Program Sci. Results, 118, 359-398.
36. Dick, H. J. B., et al. (2000), A long in situ section of the lower ocean crust: Results of ODP Leg 176 drilling at the Southwest Indian Ridge, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 179, 31-51, doi:10.1016/S0012-821X(00)00102-3. (Pubitemid 30452811)
37. Escartín, J., G. Hirth, and B. Evans (1997), Effects of serpentinization on the lithospheric strength and the style of normal faulting at slow-spreading ridges, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 151, 181-189, doi:10.1016/S0012-821X(97)81847-X.
38. Escartín, J., et al. (1999), Quantifying tectonic strain and magmatic accretion at a slow spreading ridge segment, Mid-Atlantic Ridge, 29°N, J. Geophys. Res., 104, 10,421-10,437, doi:10.1029/1998JB900097.
39. Escartín, J., C. Mével, C. J. MacLeod, and A. M. McCaig (2003), Constraints on deformation conditions and the origin of oceanic detachments: The Mid-Atlantic Ridge core complex at 15°45′N, Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst., 4(8), 1067, doi:10.1029/2002GC000472.
40. Fialko, Y. A., and A. M. Rubin (1998), Thermodynamics of lateral dike propagation: Implications for crustal accretion at slow spreading mid-ocean ridges, J. Geophys. Res., 103, 2501-2514, doi:10.1029/97JB03105.
41. Forsyth, D. W. (1992), Finite extension and low-angle normal faulting, Geology, 20, 27 - 30, doi:10.1130/0091- 7613(1992)020<0027:FEALAN>2.3. CO;2.
42. German, C. R., and J. Lin (2004), The thermal structure of the oceanic crust, ridge spreading, and hydrothermal circulation: How well do we understand their inter-connections?, in Mid- Ocean Ridges: Hydrothermal Interactions Between the Lithosphere and Oceans, Geophys. Monogr. Ser., vol.148, edited by C. R. German et al., pp. 1-18, AGU, Washington, D. C.
43. German, C. R., E. T. Baker, C. Mevel, K. Tamaki, and F. S. Team (1998), Hydrothermal activity along the southwest Indian Ridge, Nature, 395, 490-493, doi:10.1038/26730. (Pubitemid 28462440)
44. Gillis, K. M., G. Thompson, and D. S. Kelley (1993), A view of the lower crustal component of hydrothermal systems at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, J. Geophys. Res., 98, 19,597-19,620, doi:10.1029/93JB01717.
45. Goff, J. A. (1991), A global and regional stochastic analysis of near-ridge abyssal hill morphology, J. Geophys. Res., 96, 21,713-21,737, doi:10.1029/91JB02275.
46. Goff, J. A., Y. Ma, A. Shah, J. R. Cochran, and J.-C. Sempéré (1997), Stochastic analysis of seafloor morphology on the flank of the Southeast Indian Ridge: The influence of ridge morphology on the formation of abyssal hills, J. Geophys. Res., 102, 15,521-15,534, doi:10.1029/97JB00781.
47. Hassani, R., and J. Chéry (1996), Anelasticity explains topography associated with Basin and Range normal faulting, Geology, 24, 1095-1098, doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1996)024<1095:AETAWB>2.3.CO;2.
48. Hofton, M. A., and G. Foulger (1996), Postrifting anelastic deformation around the spreading plate boundary, north Iceland 2. Implications of the model derived from the 1987-1992 deformation field, J. Geophys. Res., 101, 25,423-25,436, doi:10.1029/96JB02465.
49. Hooft, E. E. E., H. Schouten, and R. S. Detrick (1996), Constraining crustal emplacement processes from the variation of seismic layer 2A thickness at the East Pacific Rise, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 142, 289-310, doi:10.1016/0012-821X(96)00101-X.
50. Hooft, E. E. E., R. S. Detrick, D. R. Toomey, J. A. Collins, and J. Lin (2000), Crustal thickness and structure along three contrasting spreading segments of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, 33.5°- 35°N, J. Geophys. Res., 105, 8205-8226,doi:10.1029/1999JB900442.
51. Hosford, A., J. Lin, and R. S. Detrick (2001), Crustal evolution over the last 2 m.y. at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge OH-1 segment, 35°N, J. Geophys. Res., 106, 13,269-13,285, doi:10.1029/2001JB000235.
52. Ildefonse, B., D. K. Blackman, B. E. John, Y. Ohara, D. J. Miller, C. J. MacLeod, and the IODP Expeditions 304/305 Science Party (2007), Oceanic core complexes and crustal accretion at slow-spreading ridges, Geology, 35, 623-626, doi:10.1130/G23531A.1. (Pubitemid 47099248)
53. Ito, G., and M. D. Behn (2008), Magmatic and tectonic extension at mid-ocean ridges: 2. Origin of axial morphology, Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst., doi:10.1029/2008GC001970, in press.
54. Jaeger, J. C., and N. G. Cook (1979), Fundamentals of Rock Mechanics, 513 pp., Chapman and Hall, London.
55. Karson, J. A., and H. J. B. Dick (1983), The tectonics of ridgetransform intersections at the Kane fracture zone, Mar. Geophys. Res., 6, 51-98, doi:10.1007/BF00300398.
56. Kirby, S. H. (1983), Rheology of the Lithosphere, Rev. Geophys., 21, 1458-1487, doi:10.1029/RG021i006p01458.
57. Kohlstedt, D. L., B. Evans, and S. J. Mackwell (1995), Strength of the lithosphere: Constraints imposed by laboratory experiments, J. Geophys. Res., 100, 17,587-17,602, doi:10.1029/95JB01460.
58. Kong, L. S. L., S. C. Solomon, and G. M. Purdy (1992), Microearthquake characteristics of a Mid-Ocean Ridge along-axis high, J. Geophys. Res., 97, 1659-1685, doi:10.1029/91JB02566.
59. Kuo, B., and D. W. Forsyth (1988), Gravity anomalies of the ridge-transform system in the South Atlantic between 31°and 34.5°S: Upwelling centers and variations in crustal thickness, Mar. Geophys. Res., 10, 205-232, doi:10.1007/BF00310065.
60. Lavier, L. L., and W. R. Buck (2002), Half graben versus large-offset low-angle normal fault: Importance of keeping cool during normal faulting, J. Geophys. Res., 107(B6), 2122, doi:10.1029/2001JB000513.
61. Lavier, L. L., W. R. Buck, and A. N. B. Poliakov (2000), Factors controlling normal fault offset in an ideal brittle layer, J. Geophys. Res., 105, 23,431-23,442, doi:10.1029/2000JB900108.
62. Lin, J., G. M. Purdy, H. Schouten, J.-C. Sempéré, and C. Zervas (1990), Evidence from gravity data for focused magmatic accretion along the Mid-Atlantic ridge, Nature, 344, 627-632, doi:10.1038/344627a0. (Pubitemid 20414381)
63. Lister, C. R. B. (1974), On the penetration of water into hot rock, Geophys. J. R. Astron. Soc., 39, 465-509.
64. Macdonald, K. C. (1982), Mid-ocean ridges: Fine scale tectonic, volcanic and hydrothermal processes within the plate boundary zone, Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci., 10, 155-190, doi:10.1146/annurev.ea.10.050182.001103.
65. Macdonald, K. C. (1986), The crest of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge: Models for crustal generation processes and tectonics, in The Geology of North America, vol.M, The Western North Atlantic Region, edited by P. R. Vogt and B. E. Tucholke, pp. 51-68, Geol. Soc. of Am., Boulder, Colo.
66. Macdonald, K. C., and P. J. Fox (1988), The axial summit graben and cross-sectional shape of the East Pacific Rise as indicators of axial magma chambers and recent volcanic eruptions, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 88, 119-131, doi:10.1016/0012-821X(88)90051-9.
67. Mackwell, S. J., M. E. Zimmerman, and D. L. Kohlstedt (1998), High-temperature deformation of dry diabase with application to tectonics on Venus, J. Geophys. Res., 103, 975-984, doi:10.1029/97JB02671.
68. Malinverno, A., and P. A. Cowie (1993), Normal faulting and the topographic roughness of mid-ocean ridge flanks, J. Geophys. Res., 98, 17,921-17,939, doi:10.1029/93JB01571.
69. Martinez, F., B. Taylor, E. T. Baker, J. A. Resing, and S. L. Walker (2006), Opposing trends in crustal thickness and spreading rate along the back-arc Eastern Lau Spreading Center: Implications for controls on ridge morphology, faulting, and hydrothermal activity, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 245, 655-672, doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2006.03.049.
70. Mastin, L. G., and D. D. Pollard (1988), Surface deformation and shallow dike intrusion processes at Inyo Craters, Long Valley, California, J. Geophys. Res., 93, 13,221-13,235, doi:10.1029/JB093iB11p13221.
71. Melosh, H. J., and C. A. Williams Jr. (1989), Mechanics of graben formation in crustal rocks: A finite element analysis, J. Geophys. Res., 94, 13,961 - 13,973, doi:10.1029/JB094iB10p13961.
72. Natland, J. H., and H. J. B. Dick (2001), Formation of the lower ocean crust and the crystallization of gabbroic cumulates at a very slowly spreading ridge, J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., 110, 191-233, doi:10.1016/S0377-0273(01) 00211-6. (Pubitemid 34057220)
73. Neumann, G. A., and D. W. Forsyth (1993), The paradox of the axial profile: Isostatic compensation along the axis of the mid-Atlantic ridge?, J. Geophys. Res., 98, 17,891-17,910, doi:10.1029/93JB01550.
74. Phipps Morgan, J., and Y. J. Chen (1993), The genesis of oceanic crust: Magma injection, hydrothermal circulation, and crustal flow, J. Geophys. Res., 98, 6283-6297, doi:10.1029/92JB02650.
75. Phipps Morgan, J., and D. W. Forsyth (1988), Three-dimensional flow and temperature perturbations due to a transform offset: Effects on oceanic crust and upper mantle structure, J. Geophys. Res., 93, 2955-2966, doi:10.1029/JB093iB04p02955.
76. Phipps Morgan, J., E. M. Parmentier, and J. Lin (1987), Mechanisms for the origin of mid-ocean ridge axial topography: Implications for the thermal and mechanical structure of accreting plate boundaries, J. Geophys. Res., 92, 12,823-12,836, doi:10.1029/JB092iB12p12823.
77. Poliakov, A. N. B., and W. R. Buck (1998), Mechanics of stretching elastic-plastic-viscous layers: Applications to slow-spreading mid-ocean ridges, in Faulting and Magmatism at Mid-Ocean Ridges, Geophys. Monogr. Ser., vol.106, edited by W. R. Buck et al., pp. 305-323, AGU, Washington, D. C.
78. Poliakov, A. N. B., P. A. Cundall, Y. Y. Podladchikov, and V. A. Lyakhovsky (1993), An explicit inertial method for the simulation of viscoelastic flow: An evaluation of elastic effects on diapiric flow in two- and three-layer models, in Flow and Creep in the Solar System: Observations, Modeling and Theory, edited by D. B. Stone and S. K. Runcorn, pp. 175-195, Kluwer Acad., Dordrecht, Netherlands.
79. Pollard, D. D., P. T. Delaney, W. A. Duffield, E. T. Endo, and A. T. Okamura (1983), Surface deformation in volcanic rift zones, Tectonophysics, 94, 541-584, doi:10.1016/0040-1951(83)90034-3.
80. Rubin, A. M. (1992), Dike-induced faulting and graben subsidence in volcanic rift zones, J. Geophys. Res., 97, 1839-1858, doi:10.1029/91JB02170.
81. Rubin, A. M., and D. D. Pollard (1988), Dike-induced faulting in rift zones of Iceland and Afar, Geology, 16, 413-417, doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1988) 016<0413:DIFIRZ>2.3.CO;2.
82. Searle, R. C., and A. S. Laughton (1981), Fine-scale sonar study of tectonics and volcanism on the Reykjanes Ridge, Oceanol. Acta, 4, suppl., 5-13.
83. Shaw, P. R. (1992), Ridge segmentation, faulting and crustal thickness in the Atlantic Ocean, Nature, 358, 490-493, doi:10.1038/358490a0. (Pubitemid 23385724)
84. Shaw, P. R., and J. Lin (1993), Causes and consequences of variations in faulting style at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, J. Geophys. Res., 98, 21,839 - 21,851, doi:10.1029/93JB01565.
85. Shaw, W. J., and J. Lin (1996), Models of ocean ridge lithospheric deformation: Dependence on crustal thickness, spreading rate, and segmentation, J. Geophys. Res., 101, 17,977-17,993, doi:10.1029/96JB00949.
86. Shen, Y., and D. W. Forsyth (1992), The effects of temperature- and pressure-dependent viscosity on three-dimensional passive flow of the mantle beneath a ridge-transform system, J. Geophys. Res., 97, 19,717 - 19,728, doi:10.1029/92JB01467.
87. Sigurdsson, O. (1980), Surface deformation of the Krafla fissure swarm in two rifting events, J. Geophys., 47, 154-159.
88. Singh, S. C., G. M. Kent, J. S. Collier, A. J. Harding, and J. A. Orcutt (1998), Melt to mush variations in crustal magma properties along the ridge crest at the southern East Pacific Rise, Nature, 394, 874-878, doi:10.1038/29740. (Pubitemid 28410905)
89. Singh, S. C., et al. (2006), Discovery of a magma chamber and faults beneath a Mid-Atlantic Ridge hydrothermal field, Nature, 442, 1029-1032, doi:10.1038/nature05105. (Pubitemid 44330258)
90. Sinton, J., R. Detrick, J. P. Canales, G. Ito, and M. Behn (2003), Morphology and segmentation of the western Galá-pagos Spreading Center, 90.5°-98°W: Plume-ridge interaction at an intermediate spreading ridge, Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst., 4(12), 8515, doi:10.1029/2003GC000609.
91. Sleep, N. H. (1975), Formation of oceanic crust: Some thermal constraints, J. Geophys. Res., 80, 4037-4042, doi:10.1029/JB080i029p04037.
92. Small, C. (1998), Global systematics of mid-ocean ridge morphology, in Faulting and Magmatism at Mid-Ocean Ridges, Geophys. Monogr. Ser., vol.106, edited by W. R. Buck et al., pp. 1-25, AGU, Washington, D. C.
93. Smith, D. K., and J. R. Cann (1993), Building the crust at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, Nature, 365, 707-715, doi:10.1038/365707a0. (Pubitemid 24420651)
94. Smith, D. K., J. Escartin, M. Cannat, M. Tolstoy, C. G. Fox, D. R. Bohnenstiehl, and S. Bazin (2003), Spatial and temporal distribution of seismicity along the northern Mid-Atlantic Ridge (15°-35°N), J. Geophys. Res., 108(B3), 2167, doi:10.1029/2002JB001964.
95. Solomon, S. C., P. Y. Huang, and L. Meinke (1988), The seismic moment budget of slowly spreading ridges, Nature, 334, 58-60, doi:10.1038/334058a0. (Pubitemid 18293851)
96. Tolstoy, M., A. J. Harding, and J. A. Orcutt (1993), Crustal thickness on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge: Bull's-eye gravity anomalies and focused accretion, Science, 262, 726-729, doi:10.1126/science.262.5134.726.
97. Toomey, D. R., S. C. Solomon, and G. M. Purdy (1988), Microearthquakes beneath median valley of Mid-Atlantic Ridge near 23°N: Tomography and tectonics, J. Geophys. Res., 93, 9093-9112, doi:10.1029/JB093iB08p09093.
98. Tucholke, B. E., and J. Lin (1994), A geological model for the structure of ridge segments in slow spreading ocean crust, J. Geophys. Res., 99, 11,937-11,958, doi:10.1029/94JB00338.
99. Tucholke, B. E., et al. (1997), Segmentation and crustal structure of the western Mid-Atlantic Ridge flank, 25°25′-27°10′N and 0-29 m.y, J. Geophys. Res., 102, 10,203-10,223, doi:10.1029/96JB03896.
100. Tucholke, B. E., J. Lin, and M. C. Kleinrock (1998), Megamullions and mullion structure defining oceanic metamorphic core complexes on the mid-Atlantic ridge, J. Geophys. Res., 103, 9857-9866, doi:10.1029/98JB00167.
101. Tucholke, B. E., K. Fujioka, T. Ishihara, G. Hirth, and M. Kinoshita (2001), Submersible study of an oceanic megamullion in the central North Atlantic, J. Geophys. Res., 106, 16,145-16,161, doi:10.1029/2001JB000373.
102. Tucholke, B. E., M. D. Behn, W. R. Buck, and J. Lin (2008), Role of melt supply in oceanic detachment faulting and formation of megamullions, Geology, 36, 455-458, doi:10.1130/G24639A.1. (Pubitemid 351903356)
103. Van Ark, E. M., R. S. Detrick, J. P. Canales, S. M. Carbotte, A. J. Harding, G. M. Kent, M. R. Nedimovic, W. S. D. Wilcock, J. B. Diebold, and J. M. Babcock (2007), Seismic structure of the Endeavour Segment, Juan de Fuca Ridge: Correlations with seismicity and hydrothermal activity, J. Geophys. Res., 112, B02401, doi:10.1029/2005JB004210. (Pubitemid 46993082)
104. Wessel, P., and W. H. F. Smith (1995), New version of the generic mapping tools released, Eos Trans. AGU, 76(33), 329.
105. Wilcock, W. S. D., and J. R. Delaney (1996), Mid-ocean ridge sulfide deposits: Evidence for heat extraction from magma chambers or cracking fronts, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 145, 49-64, doi:10.1016/S0012-821X(96)00195-1.
106. Wolfe, C. J., G. M. Purdy, D. R. Toomey, and S. C. Solomon (1995), Microearthquake characteristics and crustal velocity structure at 29°N on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge: The architecture of a slow spreading segment, J. Geophys. Res., 100, 24,449-24,472, doi:10.1029/95JB02399.
107. Wright, T. L., et al. (2006), Magma-maintained rift segmentation at continental rupture in the 2005 Afar dyking episode, Nature, 442, 291-294, doi:10.1038/nature04978. (Pubitemid 44114902)