Emotional and Physiological Desensitization to Real-Life and Movie Violence

Journal of Youth and Adolescence

Volumn 44, Issue 5, 2015, Pages 1092-1108

  Mrug, Sylvie ^a   Madan, Anjana ^a,c   Cook, Edwin W ^a   Wright, Rex A ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ALABAMA AT BIRMINGHAM   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF NORTH TEXAS   (United States)

^c University of Miami   (United States)

Author keywords

Desensitization; Emotion; Physiological; Violence

Indexed keywords

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; BLOOD PRESSURE; DESENSITIZATION (PSYCHOLOGY); EMPATHY; EXPOSURE TO VIOLENCE; FEMALE; HUMAN; MALE; MENTAL STRESS; MOVIE; PHYSIOLOGY; POSTTRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER; PSYCHOLOGICAL ADJUSTMENT; PSYCHOLOGY; QUESTIONNAIRE; VIOLENCE; YOUNG ADULT;

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; BLOOD PRESSURE; DESENSITIZATION, PSYCHOLOGIC; EMOTIONAL ADJUSTMENT; EMPATHY; EXPOSURE TO VIOLENCE; FEMALE; HUMANS; MALE; MOTION PICTURES AS TOPIC; STRESS DISORDERS, POST-TRAUMATIC; STRESS, PSYCHOLOGICAL; SURVEYS AND QUESTIONNAIRES; VIOLENCE; YOUNG ADULT;

EID: 84939956986     PISSN: 00472891     EISSN: 15736601     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s10964-014-0202-z     Document Type: Article

References (85)

1. Anderson, C. A., Shibuya, A., Ihori, N., Swing, E. L., Bushman, B. J., Sakamoto, A., et al. (2010). Violent video game effects on aggression, empathy, and prosocial behavior in eastern and western countries: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin,136, 151–173.
2. Arnett, J. J. (2000). Emerging adulthood: A theory o development from the late teens through the twenties. American Psychologist,55, 469–480.
3. Bartholow, B. D., Bushman, B. J., & Sestir, M. A. (2006). Chronic violent video game exposure and desensitization to violence: Behavioral and event-related brain potential data. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology,42, 532–539.
4. Beck, J. G., Grant, D. M., Clapp, J. D., & Palyo, S. A. (2009). Understanding the interpersonal impact of trauma: Contributions of PTSD and depression. Journal of Anxiety Disorders,23(4), 443–450.
5. Bennett, C. M., & Baird, A. A. (2006). Anatomical changes in the emerging adult brain: A voxel-based morphometry study. Human Brain Mapping,27, 766–777.
6. Boxer, P., Huesmann, L. R., Bushman, B. J., O’Brien, M. O., & Moceri, D. (2009). The role of violent media preferences in cumulative developmental risk for violence and general aggression. Journal of Youth and Adolescence,38, 417–428.
7. Bradshaw, C. P., Rodgers, C. R. R., Ghandour, L. A., & Garbarino, J. (2009). Social-cognitive mediators of the association between community violence exposure and aggressive behavior. School Psychology Quarterly,24, 199–210.
8. Brady, S. S. (2006). Lifetime community violence exposure and health risk behavior among young adults in college. Journal of Adolescent Health,39, 610–613.
9. Briere, J. (1996). Trauma symptom checklist for children: Professional manual. Florida: Psychological Assessment Resources Inc.
10. Browne, K. D., & Hamilton-Giachritsis, C. (2005). The influence of violent media on children and adolescents: A public-health approach. The Lancet,365, 702–710.
11. Buckley, T. C., & Kaloupek, D. G. (2001). A meta-analytic examination of basal cardiovascular activity in posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychosomatic Medicine,63, 585–594.
12. Bushman, B., & Anderson, C. (2009). Comfortably numb: Desensitizing effects of violent media on helping others. Psychological Science,20(3), 273–277.
13. Bushman, B. J., & Huesmann, L. R. (2001). Effects of televised violence on aggression. In D. Singer & J. Singer (Eds.), Handbook of children and the media (pp. 223–254). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
14. Calvert, S. L., Murray, K. J., & Conger, E. E. (2004). Heroic DVD portrayals: What US and Taiwanese adolescents admire and understand. Applied Developmental Psychology,25, 669–716.
15. Carnagey, N. L., Anderson, C. A., & Bushman, B. J. (2007). The effect of video game violence on physiological desensitization to real-life violence. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology,43, 489–496.
16. Center for Research Excellence. (2009). Video consumer mapping survey. Retrieved from Center for Research Excellence web site: http://www.researchexcellence.com/research/research.php
17. Cisler, J. M., Begle, A. M., Amstadter, A. B., Resnick, H. S., Danielson, C. K., Saunders, B. E., et al. (2012). Exposure to interpersonal violence and risk for PTSD, depression, delinquency, and binge drinking among adolescents: Data from the NSA-R. Journal of Traumatic Stress,25, 33–40.
18. Clark, R., Benkert, R. A., & Flack, J. M. (2006). Violence exposure and optimism predict task-induced changes in blood pressure and pulse rate in a normotensive sample of inner-city black youth. Psychosomatic Medicine,68, 73–79.
19. Cline, V. B., Croft, R. G., & Courrier, S. (1973). Desensitization of children to television violence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,27(3), 360–365.
20. Cooley-Quille, M., Boyd, R. C., Frantz, E., & Walsh, J. (2001). Emotional and behavioral impact of exposure to community violence in inner-city adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology,30(2), 199–206.
21. Cooley-Quille, M., & Lorion, R. (1999). Adolescents’ exposure to community violence: Sleep and psychophysiological functioning. Journal of Community Psychology,27, 367–375.
22. Coughlin, S. S. (2011). Post-traumatic stress disorder and cardiovascular disease. The Open Cardiovascular Medicine Journal,5, 164–170.
23. Davis, M. H. (1980). A multidimensional approach to individual differences in empathy. JSAS Catalogue of Selected Documents in Psychology,10, 85.
24. Davis, M. H. (1983). Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,44, 113–126.
25. de Kloet, E. R., Joels, M., & Holsboer, F. (2005). Stress and the brain: From adaptation to disease. Nature Reviews Neuroscience,6, 463–475.
26. Drabman, R. S., & Thomas, M. H. (1976). Does watching violence on television cause apathy? Pediatrics,57, 329–331.
27. Englehardt, C. R., Bartholow, B. D., Kerr, G. T., & Bushman, B. J. (2011). This is your brain on violent video games: Neural desensitization to violence predicts increased aggression following violent video game exposure. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology,47, 1033–1036.
28. Fanti, K. A., & Avraamides, M. N. (2011). Desensitization to media violence. In M. Paludi (Ed.), The psychology of teen violence and victimization (pp. 121–133). Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger.
29. Fanti, K. A., Vanman, E., Henrich, C. C., & Avraamides, M. N. (2009). Desensitization to media violence over a short period of time. Aggressive Behavior,35, 179–187.
30. Farrell, A. D., & Bruce, S. E. (1997). Impact of exposure to community violence on violent behavior and emotional distress among urban adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology,26, 2–14.
31. Ferguson, C. J., & Kilburn, J. (2009). The public health risks of media violence: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Pediatrics,154, 759–763.
32. Finkelhor, D., Turner, H. A., Shattuck, A., & Hamby, S. L. (2013). Violence, crime, and abuse exposure in a national sample of children and youth: An update. JAMA Pediatrics, 167(7), 614–621.
33. Fischer, P., Greitemeyer, T., Kastenmuller, A., Vogrincic, C., & Sauer, A. (2011). The effects of risk-glorifying media exposure on risk-positive cognitions, emotions, and behaviors: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin,137, 367–390.
34. Florsheim, P., Tolan, P. H., & Gorman-Smith, D. (1996). Family processes and risk for externalizing behavior problems among African American and Hispanic boys. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology,64, 1222–1230.
35. Fowler, P. J., Tompsett, C. J., Braciszewski, J. M., Jacques-Tiura, A. J., & Baltes, B. B. (2009). Community violence: A meta-analysis on the effect of exposure and mental health outcomes of children and adolescents. Development and Psychopathology,21, 227–259.
36. Funk, J. B., Baldacci, H. B., Pasold, T., & Baumgardner, J. (2004). Violence exposure in real-life, video games, television, movies, and the internet: Is there desensitization? Journal of Adolescence,27(1), 23–29.
37. Funk, J. B., Buchman, D. D., Jenks, J., & Bechtold, H. (2003). Playing violent video games, desensitization, and moral evaluation in children. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology,24(4), 413–436.
38. Garmezy, N. (1991). Resilience in children’s adaptation to negative life events and stressed environments. Pediatric Annals,20, 463–466.
39. Gaylord-Harden, N. K., Cunningham, J. A., & Zelencik, B. (2011). Effects of exposure to community violence on internalizing symptoms: Does desensitization to violence occur in African American youth? Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology,39, 711–719.
40. Guerra, N. G., Huesmann, L. R., & Spindler, A. (2003). Community violence exposure, social cognition, and aggression among urban elementary school children. Child Development,74, 1561–1576.
41. Hinchey, F. S., & Gavelek, J. R. (1982). Empathic responding in children of battered mothers. Child Abuse and Neglect,6(4), 395–401.
42. Hoffner, C., & Buchanan, M. (2005). Young adults’ wishful identification with television characters: The role of perceived similarity and character attributes. Media Psychology,7, 325–351.
43. Huesmann, L. R. (2007). The impact of electronic media violence: Scientific theory and research. Journal of Adolescent Health,41, S6–S13.
44. Huesmann, L. R., Lagerspetz, K., & Eron, L. D. (1984). Intervenin variables in the TV violence-aggression relation: Evidence from two countries. Developmental Psychology,20, 746–775.
45. Huesmann, L. R., Moise, J., Podolski, C. P., & Eron, L. D. (2003). Longitudinal relations between childhood exposure to media violence and adult aggression and violence: 1977–1992. Developmental Psychology,39(2), 201–221.
46. Kliewer, W. (2006). Violence exposure and cortisol responses in urban youth. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine,13(2), 109–120.
47. Krahé, B., & Möller, I. (2010). Longitudinal effects of media violence on aggression and empathy among German adolescents. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology,31(5), 401–409.
48. Krahé, B., Möller, I., Huesmann, L. R., Kirwil, L., Felber, J., & Berger, A. (2011). Desensitization to media violence: links with habitual media violence exposure, aggressive cognitions, and aggressive behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,100(4), 630–646.
49. Krenichyn, K., Saegert, S., & Evans, G. W. (2001). Parents as moderators of psychological and physiological correlates of inner-city children’s exposure to violence. Applied Developmental Psychology,22, 581–602.
50. Leary, K., & Dickerson, M. (1985). Levels of arousal in high- and low-frequency gamblers. Behaviour Research and Therapy,23(6), 635–640.
51. Linz, D., Donnerstein, E., & Adams, S. M. (1989). Physiological desensitization and judgments about female victims of violence. Human Communication Research,15, 509–522.
52. Linz, D., Donnerstein, E., & Penrod, S. (1984). The effects of multiple exposures to filmed violence against women. Journal of Communication,34, 130–147.
53. Linz, D. G., Donnerstein, E., & Penrod, S. (1988). Effects of long-term exposure to violent and sexually degrading depictions of women. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,55(5), 758–768.
54. Lupien, S. J., McEwen, B. S., Gunnar, M. R., & Heim, C. (2009). Effects of stress throughout the lifespan on brain, behaviour and cognition. Nature Review Neuroscience,10, 434–445.
55. Main, M., & George, C. (1985). Responses of abused and disadvantaged toddlers to distress in agemates: A study in the day care setting. Developmental Psychology,21(3), 407–412.
56. Matthews, V. P., Kronenberger, W. G., Want, Y., Lurito, J. T., Lowe, M. J., & Dunn, D. W. (2005). Media violence exposure and frontal lobe activation measure by functional magnetic resonance imaging in aggressive and nonaggressive adolescents. Journal of Computer Assisted Tomography,29, 287–292.
57. McCart, M. R., Smith, D. W., Saunders, B. E., Kilpatrick, D. G., Resnick, H., & Ruggerio, K. J. (2007). Do urban adolescents become desensitized to community violence? Data from a national survey. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry,77(3), 434–442.
58. McCloskey, L. A., & Lichter, E. L. (2003). The contribution of marital violence to adolescent aggression across different relationships. Journal of Interpersonal Violence,18(4), 390–412.
59. Meichenbaum, D. (2007). Stress inoculation training: A preventative and treatment approach. In P. M. Lehrer, R. L. Woolfolk, & W. S. Sime (Eds.), Principles and practice of stress management (pp. 497–518). New York: Guilford Press.
60. Molitor, F., & Hirsch, K. W. (1994). Children’s toleration of real-life aggression after exposure to media violence: A replication of the Drabman and Thomas studies. Child Study Journal,24, 191–207.
61. Mrug, S., Loosier, P. S., & Windle, M. (2008). Violence exposure across multiple contexts: Individual and joint effects on adjustment. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry,78, 70–84.
62. Mullin, C. R., & Linz, D. (1995). Desensitization and resensitization to violence against women: Effects of exposure to sexually violent films on judgments of domestic violence victims. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,69(3), 449–459.
63. Murali, R., & Chen, E. (2005). Exposure to violence and cardiovascular and neuroendocrine measures in adolescents. Annals of Behavioral Medicine,30(2), 155–163.
64. Ng-Mak, D. S., Salzinger, S., Feldman, R. S., & Stueve, C. A. (2004). Pathologic adaptation to community violence among inner-city youth. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry,74, 196–208.
65. Nietlisbach, G., Maercker, A., Rössler, W., & Haker, H. (2010). Are empathic abilities impaired in posttraumatic stress disorder? Psychological Reports,106, 832–844.
66. Pole, N. (2007). The psychophysiology of posttraumatic stress disorder: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin,133, 725–746.
67. Ruggiero, K. J., Del Ben, K., Scotti, J. R., & Rabalais, A. E. (2003). Psychometric properties of the PTSD Checklist—Civilian version. Journal of Traumatic Stress,16, 495–502.
68. Rutter, M. (1993). Resilience: Some conceptual considerations. Journal of Adolescent Health,14, 626–631.
69. Saltzman, K. M., Holden, G. W., & Holahan, C. J. (2005). The psychobiology of children exposed to marital violence. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology,34(1), 129–139.
70. Sams, D. P., & Truscott, S. D. (2004). Empathy, exposure to community violence and use of violence among urban, at risk adolescents. Child and Youth Care Forum,33, 33–50.
71. Savage, J., & Yancey, C. (2008). The effects of media violence exposure on criminal aggression: A meta-analysis. Criminal Justice and Behavior,35, 772–791.
72. Schwartz, D., & Proctor, L. J. (2000). Community violence exposure and children’s social adjustment in the school peer group: The mediating roles of emotion regulation and social cognition. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology,68(4), 670–683.
73. Sharpe, L. (2004). Patterns of autonomic arousal in imaginal situations of winning and losing in problem gambling. Journal of Gambling Studies,20(1), 95–104.
74. Sherwood, A., Dolan, C. A., & Light, K. C. (1990). Hemodynamics of blood pressure responses during active and passive coping. Psychophysiology,27, 656–668.
75. Singer, M. I., Flannery, D. J., Guo, S., Miller, D., & Leibbrandt, S. (2004). Exposure to violence, parental monitoring, and television viewing as contributors to children’s psychological trauma. Journal of Community Psychology,32(5), 489–504.
76. Smith, A. (2006). Cognitive empathy and emotional empathy in human behavior and evolution. The Psychological Record,56, 3–21.
77. Smith, S. L., Wilson, B. J., Kunkel, D., Linz, D., Potter, W. J., Colvin, C. M., et al. (1998). National television violence study (Vol. 3). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
78. Su, W., Mrug, S., & Windle, M. (2010). Social cognitive and emotional mediators link violence exposure and parental nurturance to adolescent aggression. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology,39, 814–824.
79. Thomas, M. H., Horton, R. W., Lippincott, E. C., & Drabman, R. S. (1977). Desensitization to portrayals of real-life aggression as a function of television violence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,35, 450–458.
80. Van der Molen, J. H. W., & Bushman, B. J. (2008). Children’s direct fright and worry reactions to violence in fiction and news television programs. Journal of Pediatrics,153, 420–424.
81. Weathers, F. W., Litz, B. T., Huska, J. A., & Keane, T. M. (1994). The PTSD Checklist—Civilian version (PCL-C). Boston, MA: National Center for PTSD.
82. Wilson, D., Kliewer, W., Teasley, N., Plybon, L., & Sica, D. (2002). Violence exposure, catecholamine excretion, and blood pressure non-dipping status in African-American male versus female adolescents. Psychosomatic Medicine,64, 906–915.
83. Wright, J. C., Huston, A. C., Reitz, A. L., & Piemyat, S. (1994). Young children’s perceptions of television reality: Determinants and developmental differences. Developmental Psychology,30(2), 229–239.
84. Wright, R. A., Shim, J. J., Hogan, B. K., Duncan, J., & Thomas, C. (2012). Interactional influence of fatigue and task difficulty on cardiovascular response: Demonstrations involving an aerobic exercise challenge. Psychophysiology,49, 1049–1058.
85. Zatzick, D., Rivara, F., Jurkovich, G., Hoge, C. W., Wang, J., Fan, M., et al. (2010). Multi-site investigation of traumatic brain injuries, posttraumatic stress disorder, and self-reported health and cognitive impairments. Archives of General Psychiatry,67, 1291–1300.