Human Immunodeficiency Virus and Heart Failure in Low- and Middle-Income Countries

JACC: Heart Failure

Volumn 3, Issue 8, 2015, Pages 579-590

  Bloomfield, Gerald S ^a,b   Alenezi, Fawaz ^a   Barasa, Felix A ^c   Lumsden, Rebecca ^d   Mayosi, Bongani M ^e   Velazquez, Eric J ^a,b  

^a DUKE UNIVERSITY MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

^b DUKE UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^c MOI TEACHING AND REFERRAL HOSPITAL   (Kenya)

^d UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS MEDICAL SCHOOL   (United States)

^e UNIVERSITY OF CAPE TOWN   (South Africa)

Author keywords

Developing countries; Heart failure; Human immunodeficiency virus

Indexed keywords

ANTIRETROVIRUS AGENT; BETA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; DIDANOSINE; DIGOXIN; DIPEPTIDYL CARBOXYPEPTIDASE INHIBITOR; SPIRONOLACTONE; STAVUDINE; ZIDOVUDINE;

ALCOHOL ABUSE; AUTOIMMUNITY; AUTONOMIC DYSFUNCTION; CARDIAC AUTOIMMUNITY; CARDIOMYOPATHY; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; CHRONIC DISEASE; CLINICAL FEATURE; DIASTOLIC DYSFUNCTION; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DISORDERS OF MITOCHONDRIAL FUNCTIONS; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG SAFETY; HEART FAILURE; HIGH RISK POPULATION; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTED PATIENT; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTION; HYPERTENSION; LEFT VENTRICULAR SYSTOLIC DYSFUNCTION; LIFE EXPECTANCY; LOW INCOME COUNTRY; MIDDLE INCOME COUNTRY; MORTALITY; MYOCARDIAL DISEASE; MYOPATHY; NUTRITIONAL DEFICIENCY; OBSERVATIONAL STUDY; OPPORTUNISTIC INFECTION; OUTCOME ASSESSMENT; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; SOCIAL STATUS; SOCIOECONOMICS; TOBACCO USE; TUBERCULOSIS; VIRUS REPLICATION; AGE; CAUSE OF DEATH; CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDY; DEVELOPED COUNTRY; DEVELOPING COUNTRY; FORECASTING; HIGHLY ACTIVE ANTIRETROVIRAL THERAPY; HIV INFECTIONS; INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION; TRENDS;

AGE FACTORS; ANTIRETROVIRAL THERAPY, HIGHLY ACTIVE; CAUSE OF DEATH; CHRONIC DISEASE; CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDIES; DEVELOPED COUNTRIES; DEVELOPING COUNTRIES; FORECASTING; HEART FAILURE; HIV INFECTIONS; HUMANS; INTERNATIONALITY; LIFE EXPECTANCY; RISK FACTORS;

EID: 84939426878     PISSN: 22131779     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.jchf.2015.05.003     Document Type: Review

References (101)

1. Johnson L.F., Mossong J., Dorrington R.E., et al. Life expectancies of South African adults starting antiretroviral treatment: collaborative analysis of cohort studies. PLoS Med 2013, 10:e1001418.
2. Sabin C.A. Do people with HIV infection have a normal life expectancy in the era of combination antiretroviral therapy?. BMC Med 2013, 11:251.
3. Currier J.S., Taylor A., Boyd F., et al. Coronary heart disease in HIV-infected individuals. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2003, 33:506-512.
4. Freiberg M.S., Chang C.C., Kuller L.H., et al. HIV infection and the risk of acute myocardial infarction. JAMA Intern Med 2013, 173:614-622.
5. Durand M., Sheehy O., Baril J.G., Lelorier J., Tremblay C.L. Association between HIV infection, antiretroviral therapy, and risk of acute myocardial infarction: a cohort and nested case-control study using Québec's public health insurance database. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2011, 57:245-253.
6. Butt A.A., Chang C.C., Kuller L., et al. Risk of heart failure with human immunodeficiency virus in the absence of prior diagnosis of coronary heart disease. Arch Intern Med 2011, 171:737-743.
7. Sliwa K., Carrington M.J., Becker A., Thienemann F., Ntsekhe M., Stewart S. Contribution of the human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome epidemic to de novo presentations of heart disease in the Heart of Soweto Study cohort. Eur Heart J 2012, 33:866-874.
8. Lorgis L., Cottenet J., Molins G., et al. Outcomes after acute myocardial infarction in HIV-infected patients: analysis of data from a French nationwide hospital medical information database. Circulation 2013, 127:1767-1774.
9. Esser S., Gelbrich G., Brockmeyer N., et al. Prevalence of cardiovascular diseases in HIV-infected outpatients: results from a prospective, multicenter cohort study. Clin Res Cardiol 2013, 102:203-213.
10. Report on the Global AIDS Epidemic 2013 2013, Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS), World Health Organization, Geneva, Available at:, Accessed February 20, 2015. http://www.unaids.org/sites/default/files/en/media/unaids/contentassets/documents/epidemiology/2013/gr2013/UNAIDS_Global_Report_2013_en.pdf.
11. Magula N.P., Mayosi B.M. Cardiac involvement in HIV-infected people living in Africa: a review. Cardiovasc J S Afr 2003, 14:231-237.
12. Hakim J.G., Matenga J.A., Siziya S. Myocardial dysfunction in human immunodeficiency virus infection: an echocardiographic study of 157 patients in hospital in Zimbabwe. Heart 1996, 76:161-165.
13. Niakara A., Drabo Y.J., Kambire Y., Nebie L.V., Kabore N.J., Simon F. Cardiovascular diseases and HIV infection: study of 79 cases at the National Hospital of Ouagadougou (Burkina Faso) [in French]. Bull Soc Pathol Exot 2002, 95:23-26.
14. Nzuobontane D., Blackett K.N., Kuaban C. Cardiac involvement in HIV infected people in Yaounde, Cameroon. Postgrad Med J 2002, 78:678-681.
15. Currie P.F., Jacob A.J., Foreman A.R., Elton R.A., Brettle R.P., Boon N.A. Heart muscle disease related to HIV infection: prognostic implications. BMJ 1994, 309:1605-1607.
16. Barbaro G. Pathogenesis of HIV-associated heart disease. AIDS 2003, 17(Suppl 1):S12-S20.
17. Bloomfield G.S., Velazquez E.J. HIV and cardiovascular disease in sub-Saharan Africa: the Sutton Law as applied to global health. J Am Coll Cardiol 2013, 61:2395.
18. Callender T., Woodward M., Roth G., et al. Heart failure care in low- and middle-income countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS Med 2014, 11:e1001699.
19. Ambrosy A.P., Gheorghiade M., Chioncel O., Mentz R.J., Butler J. Global perspectives in hospitalized heart failure: regional and ethnic variation in patient characteristics, management, and outcomes. Curr Heart Fail Rep 2014, 11:416-427.
20. Khatibzadeh S., Farzadfar F., Oliver J., Ezzati M., Moran A. Worldwide risk factors for heart failure: a systematic review and pooled analysis. Int J Cardiol 2013, 168:1186-1194.
21. Bloomfield G.S., Barasa F.A., Doll J.A., Velazquez E.J. Heart Failure in Sub-Saharan Africa. Curr Cardiol Rev 2013, 9:157-173.
22. Damasceno A., Mayosi B.M., Sani M., et al. The causes, treatment, and outcome of acute heart failure in 1,006 Africans from 9 countries. Arch Intern Med 2012, 172:1386-1394.
23. Stewart S., Wilkinson D., Hansen C., et al. Predominance of heart failure in the Heart of Soweto Study cohort: emerging challenges for urban African communities. Circulation 2008, 118:2360-2367.
24. Swedberg K., Cleland J., Dargie H., et al. Guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of chronic heart failure: executive summary (update 2005): the Task Force for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Chronic Heart Failure of the European Society of Cardiology. Eur Heart J 2005, 26:1115-1140.
25. Yancy C.W., Jessup M., Bozkurt B., et al. 2013 ACCF/AHA guideline for the management of heart failure: a report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force on practice guidelines. J Am Coll Cardiol 2013, 62:e147-e239.
26. Hsue P.Y., Deeks S.G., Hunt P.W. Immunologic basis of cardiovascular disease in HIV-infected adults. J Infect Dis 2012, 205(Suppl 3):S375-S382.
27. Sliwa K., Damasceno A., Mayosi B.M. Epidemiology and etiology of cardiomyopathy in Africa. Circulation 2005, 112:3577-3583.
28. Bloomfield G.S., Khazanie P., Morris A., et al. HIV and noncommunicable cardiovascular and pulmonary diseases in low- and middle-income countries in the ART era: what we know and best directions for future research. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2014, 67(Suppl 1):S40-S53.
29. Lewis W. Cardiomyopathy in AIDS: a pathophysiological perspective. Prog Cardiovasc Dis 2000, 43:151-170.
30. Duan M., Yao H., Hu G., Chen X., Lund A.K., Buch S. HIV Tat induces expression of ICAM-1 in HUVECs: implications for miR-221/-222 in HIV-associated cardiomyopathy. PLoS One 2013, 8:e60170.
31. Calabrese L.H., Proffitt M.R., Yen-Lieberman B., Hobbs R.E., Ratliff N.B. Congestive cardiomyopathy and illness related to the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) associated with isolation of retrovirus from myocardium. Ann Intern Med 1987, 107:691-692.
32. Fiala M., Popik W., Qiao J.H., et al. HIV-1 induces cardiomyopathyby cardiomyocyte invasion and gp120, Tat, and cytokine apoptotic signaling. Cardiovasc Toxicol 2004, 4:97-107.
33. Jacob A.J., Sutherland G.R., Bird A.G., et al. Myocardial dysfunction in patients infected with HIV: prevalence and risk factors. Br Heart J 1992, 68:549-553.
34. Twu C., Liu N.Q., Popik W., et al. Cardiomyocytes undergo apoptosis in human immunodeficiency virus cardiomyopathy through mitochondrion- and death receptor-controlled pathways. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2002, 99:14386-14391.
35. Lopes de Campos W.R., Chirwa N., London G., et al. HIV-1 subtype C unproductively infects human cardiomyocytes in vitro and induces apoptosis mitigated by an anti-Gp120 aptamer. PLoS One 2014, 9:e110930.
36. Lecoeur H., Borgne-Sanchez A., Chaloin O., et al. HIV-1 Tat protein directly induces mitochondrial membrane permeabilization and inactivates cytochrome c oxidase. Cell Death Dis 2012, 3:e282.
37. Shaboodien G., Engel M.E., Syed F.F., Poulton J., Badri M., Mayosi B.M. The mitochondrial DNA T16189C polymorphism and HIV-associated cardiomyopathy: a genotype-phenotype association study. BMC Med Genet 2009, 10:37.
38. Longo-Mbenza B., Seghers K.V., Phuati M., Bikangi F.N., Mubagwa K. Heart involvement and HIV infection in African patients: determinants of survival. Int J Cardiol 1998, 64:63-73.
39. Shaboodien G., Maske C., Wainwright H., et al. Prevalence of myocarditis and cardiotropic virus infection in Africans with HIV-associated cardiomyopathy, idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy and heart transplant recipients: a pilot study: cardiovascular topic. Cardiovasc J Afr 2013, 24:218-223.
40. Mondy K.E., Gottdiener J., Overton E.T., et al. High prevalence of echocardiographic abnormalities among HIV-infected persons in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. Clin Infect Dis 2011, 52:378-386.
41. Cerrato E., D'Ascenzo F., Biondi-Zoccai G., et al. Cardiac dysfunction in pauci symptomatic human immunodeficiency virus patients: a meta-analysis in the highly active antiretroviral therapy era. Eur Heart J 2013, 34:1432-1436.
42. El Hattaoui M., Charei N., Boumzebra D., Aajly L., Fadouach S. Prevalence of cardiomyopathy in HIV infection: prospective study on 158 HIV patients [in French]. Med Mal Infect 2008, 38:387-391.
43. Twagirumukiza M., Nkeramihigo E., Seminega B., Gasakure E., Boccara F., Barbaro G. Prevalence of dilated cardiomyopathy in HIV-infected African patients not receiving HAART: a multicenter, observational, prospective, cohort study in Rwanda. Curr HIV Res 2007, 5:129-137.
44. Joy E.J., Ander E.L., Young S.D., et al. Dietary mineral supplies in Africa. Physiol Plant 2014, 151:208-229.
45. Look M.P., Rockstroh J.K., Rao G.S., et al. Serum selenium, plasma glutathione (GSH) and erythrocyte glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px)-levels in asymptomatic versus symptomatic human immunodeficiency virus-1 (HIV-1)-infection. Eur J Clin Nutr 1997, 51:266-272.
46. Zazzo J.F., Chalas J., Lafont A., Camus F., Chappuis P. Is nonobstructive cardiomyopathy in AIDS a selenium deficiency-related disease?. J Parenter Enteral Nutr 1988, 12:537-538.
47. Kavanaugh-McHugh A.L., Ruff A., Perlman E., Hutton N., Modlin J., Rowe S. Selenium deficiency and cardiomyopathy in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. J Parenter Enteral Nutr 1991, 15:347-349.
48. Lemmer C.E., Badri M., Visser M., Mayosi B.M. A lower body mass index is associated with cardiomyopathy in people with HIV infection: evidence from a case comparison study. S Afr Med J 2011, 101:119-121.
49. Pugliese A., Isnardi D., Saini A., Scarabelli T., Raddino R., Torre D. Impact of highly active antiretroviral therapy in HIV-positive patients with cardiac involvement. J Infect 2000, 40:282-284.
50. Bijl M., Dieleman J.P., Simoons M., van der Ende M.E. Low prevalence of cardiac abnormalities in an HIV-seropositive population on antiretroviral combination therapy. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2001, 27:318-320.
51. Barbaro G. Metabolic and cardiovascular complications of highly active antiretroviral therapy for HIV infection. Curr HIV Res 2006, 4:79-85.
52. Currie P.F., Boon N.A. Immunopathogenesis of HIV-related heart muscle disease: current perspectives. AIDS 2003, 17(Suppl 1):S21-S28.
53. Herskowitz A., Willoughby S.B., Baughman K.L., Schulman S.P., Bartlett J.D. Cardiomyopathy associated with antiretroviral therapy in patients with HIV infection: a report of six cases. Ann Intern Med 1992, 116:311-313.
54. Lipshultz S.E., Orav E.J., Sanders S.P., Hale A.R., McIntosh K., Colan S.D. Cardiac structure and function in children with human immunodeficiency virus infection treated with zidovudine. N Engl J Med 1992, 327:1260-1265.
55. Luo L., Ye Y., Liu Z., et al. Assessment of cardiac diastolic dysfunction in HIV-infected people without cardiovascular symptoms in China. Int J STD AIDS 2010, 21:814-818.
56. Currie P.F., Goldman J.H., Caforio A.L., et al. Cardiac autoimmunity in HIV related heart muscle disease. Heart 1998, 79:599-604.
57. Frustaci A., Petrosillo N., Francone M., Verardo R., Ippolito G., Chimenti C. Biopsy-proven autoimmune myocarditis in HIV-associated dilated cardiomyopathy. BMC Infect Dis 2014, 14:3855.
58. Herskowitz A., Wu T.C., Willoughby S.B., et al. Myocarditis and cardiotropic viral infection associated with severe left ventricular dysfunction in late-stage infection with human immunodeficiency virus. J Am Coll Cardiol 1994, 24:1025-1032.
59. Longo-Mbenza B., Seghers L.V., Vita E.K., Tonduangu K., Bayekula M. Assessment of ventricular diastolic function in AIDS patients from Congo: a Doppler echocardiographic study. Heart 1998, 80:184-189.
60. Jain N., Reddy D.H., Verma S.P., et al. Cardiac abnormalities in HIV-positive patients: results from an observational study in India. J Int Assoc Provid AIDS Care 2014, 13:40-46.
61. Sliwa K., Davison B.A., Mayosi B.M., et al. Readmission and death after an acute heart failure event: predictors and outcomes in sub-Saharan Africa: results from the THESUS-HF registry. Eur Heart J 2013, 34:3151-3159.
62. Chillo P., Bakari M., Lwakatare J. Echocardiographic diagnoses in HIV-infected patients presenting with cardiac symptoms at Muhimbili National Hospital in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Cardiovasc J Afr 2012, 23:90-97.
63. Ige O.O., Oguche S., Bode-Thomas F. Left ventricular systolic function in Nigerian children with human immunodeficiency virus infection. Congenit Heart Dis 2012, 7:417-422.
64. Okoromah C.A., Ojo O.O., Ogunkunle O.O. Cardiovascular dysfunction in HIV-infected children in a sub-Saharan African country: comparative cross-sectional observational study. J Trop Pediatr 2012, 58:3-11.
65. Olusegun-Joseph D.A., Ajuluchukwu J.N., Okany C.C., Mbakwem A.C., Oke D.A., Okubadejo N.U. Echocardiographic patterns in treatment-naïve HIV-positive patients in Lagos, south-west Nigeria. Cardiovasc J Afr 2012, 23:e1-e6.
66. Pepeta L., Cilliers A.M. Impact of highly active antiretroviral therapy on paediatric human immunodeficiency virus-associated left ventricular dysfunction within the Johannesburg teaching hospital complex. Cardiol Young 2012, 22:564-573.
67. Schwartz T., Magdi G., Steen T.W., Sjaastad I. HIV as a risk factor for cardiac disease in Botswana: a cross-sectional study. Int Health 2012, 4:30-37.
68. Tantchou Tchoumi J.C., Ambassa J.C., Kingue S., et al. Occurrence, aetiology and challenges in the management of congestive heart failure in sub-Saharan Africa: experience of the Cardiac Centre in Shisong, Cameroon. Pan Afr Med J 2011, 8:11.
69. Lubega S., Zirembuzi G.W., Lwabi P. Heart disease among children with HIV/AIDS attending the paediatric infectious disease clinic at Mulago Hospital. Afr Health Sci 2005, 5:219-226.
70. Diogenes M.S., Carvalho A.C., Succi R.C. Reversible cardiomyopathy subsequent to perinatal infection with the human immunodeficiency virus. Cardiol Young 2003, 13:373-376.
71. Sliwa K., Wilkinson D., Hansen C., et al. Spectrum of heart disease and risk factors in a black urban population in South Africa (the Heart of Soweto Study): a cohort study. Lancet 2008, 371:915-922.
72. Owusu I.K., Adu-Boakye Y. Prevalence and aetiology of heart failure in patients seen at a teaching hospital in Ghana. J Cardiovasc Dis Diagn 2013, 1:1-4.
73. Ogah O.S., Stewart S., Falase A.O., et al. Contemporary profile of acute heart failure in Southern Nigeria: data from the Abeokuta Heart Failure Clinical Registry. J Am Coll Cardiol HF 2014, 2:250-259.
74. Onwuchekwa A.C., Asekomeh G.E. Pattern of heart failure in a Nigerian teaching hospital. Vasc Health Risk Manag 2009, 5:745-750.
75. Makubi A., Hage C., Lwakatare J., et al. Contemporary aetiology, clinical characteristics and prognosis of adults with heart failure observed in a tertiary hospital in Tanzania: the prospective Tanzania Heart Failure (TaHeF) study. Heart 2014, 100:1235-1241.
76. Hsue P.Y., Hunt P.W., Ho J.E., et al. Impact of HIV infection on diastolic function and left ventricular mass. Circ Heart Fail 2010, 3:132-139.
77. Lipshultz S.E., Easley K.A., Orav E.J., et al. Cardiovascular status of infants and children of women infected with HIV-1 (P(2)C(2) HIV): a cohort study. Lancet 2002, 360:368-373.
78. Herdy G.V., Pinto C.A., Lopes V.G., et al. Study of the cardiac alterations in HIV-infected children consequent to the antiretroviral therapy. Prospective study of 47 cases. Arq Bras Cardiol 2003, 80:311-320.
79. HIV-Druginteractions. Available at: . Accessed June 17, 2015. http://www.hiv-druginteractions.org.
80. Wong R.W., Balachandran A., Ostrowski M.A., Cochrane A. Digoxin suppresses HIV-1 replication by altering viral RNA processing. PLoS Pathog 2013, 9:e1003241.
81. Schuster I., Thoni G.J., Ederhy S., et al. Subclinical cardiac abnormalities in human immunodeficiency virus-infected men receiving antiretroviral therapy. Am J Cardiol 2008, 101:1213-1217.
82. Reinsch N., Neuhaus K., Esser S., et al. Prevalence of cardiac diastolic dysfunction in HIV-infected patients: results of the HIV-HEART study. HIV Clin Trials 2010, 11:156-162.
83. Karavidas A., Tsiachris D., Lazaros G., et al. Doppler tissue imaging unmasks right ventricular function abnormalities in HIV-infected patients. Cardiol J 2010, 17:587-593.
84. Holloway C.J., Ntusi N., Suttie J., et al. Comprehensive cardiac magnetic resonance imaging and spectroscopy reveal a high burden of myocardial disease in HIV patients. Circulation 2013, 128:814-822.
85. Kraigher-Krainer E., Shah A.M., Gupta D.K., et al. Impaired systolic function by strain imaging in heart failure with preserved ejection fraction. J Am Coll Cardiol 2014, 63:447-456.
86. Mendes L., Silva D., Miranda C., et al. Impact of HIV infection on cardiac deformation. Rev Port Cardiol 2014, 33:501-509.
87. Al-Naami G., Kiblawi F., Kest H., Hamdan A., Myridakis D. Cardiac mechanics in patients with human immunodeficiency virus: a study of systolic myocardial deformation in children and young adults. Pediatr Cardiol 2014, 35:1046-1051.
88. Dillon D.G., Gurdasani D., Riha J., et al. Association of HIV and ART with cardiometabolic traits in sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Epidemiol 2013, 42:1754-1771.
89. Desalu O.O., Oluboyo P.O., Olokoba A.B., et al. Prevalence and determinants of tobacco smoking among HIV patients in North Eastern Nigeria. Afr J Med Med Sci 2009, 38:103-108.
90. Bloomfield G.S., Hogan J.W., Keter A., et al. Hypertension and obesity as cardiovascular risk factors among HIV seropositive patients in western Kenya. PLoS One 2011, 6:e22288.
91. Borkum M., Wearne N., Alfred A., Dave J.A., Levitt N.S., Rayner B. Ambulatory blood pressure profiles in a subset of HIV-positive patients pre and post antiretroviral therapy. Cardiovasc J Afr 2014, 25:153-157.
92. Bloomfield G.S., Hogan J.W., Keter A., et al. Blood pressure level impacts risk of death among HIV seropositive adults in Kenya: a retrospective analysis of electronic health records. BMC Infect Dis 2014, 14:284.
93. Mayosi B.M., Ntsekhe M., Bosch J., et al. Prednisolone and Mycobacterium indicus pranii in tuberculous pericarditis. N Engl J Med 2014, 371:1121-1130.
94. Ntsekhe M., Hakim J. Impact of human immunodeficiency virus infection on cardiovascular disease in Africa. Circulation 2005, 112:3602-3607.
95. Becker A.C., Jacobson B., Singh S., et al. The thrombotic profile of treatment-naive HIV-positive Black South Africans with acute coronary syndromes. Clin Appl Thromb Hemost 2011, 17:264-272.
96. Swedberg K., Komajda M., Bohm M., et al. Ivabradine and outcomes in chronic heart failure (SHIFT): a randomised placebo-controlled study. Lancet 2010, 376:875-885.
97. Wever-Pinzon O., Bangalore S., Romero J., Silva Enciso J., Chaudhry F.A. Inotropic contractile reserve can risk-stratify patients with HIV cardiomyopathy: a dobutamine stress echocardiography study. J Am Coll Cardiol Img 2011, 4:1231-1238.
98. Lai H., Redheuil A., Tong W., et al. HIV infection and abnormal regional ventricular function. Int J Cardiovasc Imaging 2009, 25:809-817.
99. World Health Organization Global Health Observatory Data Repository 2013. Available at: . Accessed June 17, 2015. http://www.who.int/gho/en/.
100. U.S. Central Intelligence Agency World Factbook. Available at: . Accessed June 17, 2015. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2157rank.html.
101. Centers for Disease Control, Taiwan (ROC). Available at: . Accessed June 23, 2015. http://www.cdc.gov.tw/info.aspx?treeid=1f07e8862ba550cf&nowtreeid=6c5ea6d932836f74&tid=58114AFB86117F53.