Nondaily smokers' experience of craving on days they do not smoke

Journal of Abnormal Psychology

Volumn 124, Issue 3, 2015, Pages 648-659

  Shiffman, Saul ^a   Dunbar, Michael S ^a   Tindle, Hilary A ^a,b   Ferguson, Stuart G ^a,c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^b VANDERBILT UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF TASMANIA   (Australia)

Author keywords

Dependence; Ecological momentary assessment; Nondaily smoking; Smoking

Indexed keywords

ADULT; AROUSAL; ARTICLE; ASSOCIATION; CLINICAL ASSESSMENT TOOL; CONTROLLED STUDY; ECOLOGICAL MOMENTARY ASSESSMENT; FEMALE; HUMAN; INTERMITTENT SMOKER; MAJOR CLINICAL STUDY; MALE; PATIENT MONITORING; PERSONAL EXPERIENCE; PREDICTION; SMOKING; SMOKING CESSATION; SMOKING HABIT; STATISTICAL MODEL; TOBACCO DEPENDENCE; WITHDRAWAL SYNDROME; ADVERSE EFFECTS; CRAVING; MIDDLE AGED; PHYSIOLOGY; PSYCHOLOGY; TOBACCO; YOUNG ADULT;

ADULT; CRAVING; FEMALE; HUMANS; MALE; MIDDLE AGED; SMOKING; SUBSTANCE WITHDRAWAL SYNDROME; TOBACCO; YOUNG ADULT;

EID: 84938950861     PISSN: 0021843X     EISSN: 19391846     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/abn0000063     Document Type: Article

References (82)

1. American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
2. Audrain-McGovern, J., Al Koudsi, N., Rodriguez, D., Wileyto, E. P., Shields, P. G., & Tyndale, R. F. (2007). The role of CYP2A6 in the emergence of nicotine dependence in adolescents. Pediatrics, 119, e264-e274. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2006-1583
3. Benowitz, N. L. (1992). Cigarette smoking and nicotine addiction. The Medical Clinics of North America, 76, 415-437.
4. Benowitz, N. L. (2008). Clinical pharmacology of nicotine: Implications for understanding, preventing, and treating tobacco addiction. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics, 83, 531-541. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1038/clpt.2008.3
5. Bierut, L. J., Madden, P. A., Breslau, N., Johnson, E. O., Hatsukami, D., Pomerleau, O. F.,... Ballinger, D. G.. (2007). Novel genes identified in a high-density genome wide association study for nicotine dependence. Human Molecular Genetics, 16, 24-35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/hmg/ ddl441
6. Caggiula, A. R., Donny, E. C., White, A. R., Chaudhri, N., Booth, S., Gharib, M. A.,... Sved, A. F. (2001). Cue dependency of nicotine self-administration and smoking. Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior, 70, 515-530. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0091-3057(01)00676-1
7. Carter, B. L., & Tiffany, S. T. (1999). Meta-analysis of cue-reactivity in addiction research. Addiction, 94, 327-340. http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1360-0443.1999.9433273.x
8. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). (2003). Prevalence of current cigarette smoking among adults and changes in prevalence of current and some day smoking-United States, 1996-2001. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 52, 303-307.
9. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). (2008). Cigarette smoking among adults-United States, 2007. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 57, 1221-1226.
10. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). (2012). Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System Survey Data. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Retrieved from http://apps.nccd.cdc.gov/ brfss/
11. Chen, L. S., Baker, T. B., Grucza, R., Wang, J. C., Johnson, E. O., Breslau, N.,... Bierut, L. J. (2012). Dissection of the phenotypic and genotypic associations with nicotinic dependence. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 14, 425-433. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ntr/ntr231
12. DeGrandpre, R. J., & Bickel, W. K. (1993). Stimulus control and drug dependence. The Psychological Record, 43, 651-666.
13. de Wit, H. (1996). Priming effects with drugs and other reinforcers. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 4, 5-10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/1064-1297.4.1.5
14. DiFranza, J. R., & Ursprung, W. W. (2008). The latency to the onset of nicotine withdrawal: A test of the sensitization-homeostasis theory. Addictive Behaviors, 33, 1148-1153. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2008.04.011
15. DiFranza, J. R., Ursprung, W. W., & Carson, A. (2010). New insights into the compulsion to use tobacco from an adolescent case-series. Journal of Adolescence, 33, 209-214. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2009.03.009
16. DiFranza, J. R., & Wellman, R. J. (2005). A sensitization-homeostasis model of nicotine craving, withdrawal, and tolerance: Integrating the clinical and basic science literature. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 7, 9-26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14622200412331328538
17. DiFranza, J. R., Wellman, R. J., Mermelstein, R., Pbert, L., Klein, J. D., Sargent, J. D.,... Winickoff, J. P. (2011). The natural history and diagnosis of nicotine addiction. Current Reviews in Pediatrics, 72, 88-96. http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/157339611795735648
18. Donny, E. C., & Dierker, L. C. (2007). The absence of DSM-IV nicotine dependence in moderate-to-heavy daily smokers. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 89, 93-96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2006.11.019
19. Epstein, D. H., Willner-Reid, J., Vahabzadeh, M., Mezghanni, M., Lin, J. L., & Preston, K. L. (2009). Real-time electronic diary reports of cue exposure and mood in the hours before cocaine and heroin craving and use. Archives of General Psychiatry, 66, 88 -94. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2008.509
20. Erb, S., Shaham, Y., & Stewart, J. (1996). Stress reinstates cocaine-seeking behavior after prolonged extinction and a drug-free period. Psychopharmacology, 128, 408-412. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s002130050150
21. Ferguson, S. G., & Shiffman, S. (2009). The relevance and treatment of cue-induced cravings in tobacco dependence. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 36, 235-243. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsat.2008.06.005
22. Ferguson, S. G., & Shiffman, S. (2010). Effect of high-dose nicotine patch on the characteristics of lapse episodes. Health Psychology, 29, 358-366. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0019367
23. Fernando, W. W. S. A., Wellman, R. J., & DiFranza, J. R. (2006). The relationship between level of cigarette consumption and latency to the onset of retrospectively reported withdrawal symptoms. Psychopharmacology, 188, 335-342. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00213-006-0497-x
24. Freeman, T. J., & Lattal, K. A. (1992). Stimulus control of behavioral history. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 57, 5-15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1901/jeab.1992.57-5
25. Frith, C. D. (1971). Smoking behaviour and its relation to the smoker's immediate experience. The British Journal of Social & Clinical Psychology, 10, 73-78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8260.1971.tb00714.x
26. Giovino, G. A., Sidney, S., Gfroerer, J. C., O'Malley, P. M., Allen, J. A., Richter, P. A., & Cummings, K. M. (2004). Epidemiology of menthol cigarette use. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 6(Suppl. 1), S67-S81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14622203710001649696
27. Goedeker, K. C., & Tiffany, S. T. (2008). On the nature of nicotine addiction: A taxometric analysis. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 117, 896-909. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0013296
28. Heatherton, T. F., Kozlowski, L. T., Frecker, R. C., & Fagerström, K. O. (1991). The Fagerström Test for Nicotine Dependence: A revision of the Fagerström Tolerance Questionnaire. British Journal of Addiction, 86, 1119-1127. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.1991.tb01879.x
29. Hopper, J. W., Su, Z., Looby, A. R., Ryan, E. T., Penetar, D. M., Palmer, C. M., & Lukas, S. E. (2006). Incidence and patterns of polydrug use and craving for ecstasy in regular ecstasy users: An ecological momentary assessment study. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 85, 221-235. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2006.04.012
30. Hubbard, A. E., Ahern, J., Fleischer, N. L., Van der Laan, M., Lippman, S. A., Jewell, N.,... Satariano, W. A. (2010). To GEE or not to GEE:Comparing population average and mixed models for estimating the associations between neighborhood risk factors and health. Epidemiology (Cambridge, Mass.), 21, 467-474. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/EDE.0b013e3181caeb90
31. Hughes, J. R. (2007). Effects of abstinence from tobacco: Valid symptoms and time course. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 9, 315-327. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14622200701188919
32. Hughes, J. R., Higgins, S. T., Hatsukami, D. K., Kozlowski, L. T., Annis, H. M., Cappell, H. D., & Vingilis, E. R. (1990). Effects of abstinence from tobacco: A critical review. In L. T. Kozlowski, H. Annis, H. D. Cappell, F. Glaser, M. Goodstadt, Y. Israel,... J. Vingilis (Eds.), Research advances in alcohol and drug problems (pp. 317-398). New York, NY: Plenum Press Publishing. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-1669-3_10
33. Hussong, A. M., Hicks, R. E., Levy, S. A., & Curran, P. J. (2001). Specifying the relations between affect and heavy alcohol use among young adults. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 110, 449-461. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.110.3.449
34. Jarvik, M. E., Madsen, D. C., Olmstead, R. E., Iwamoto-Schaap, P. N., Elins, J. L., & Benowitz, N. L. (2000). Nicotine blood levels and subjective craving for cigarettes. Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior, 66, 553-558. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0091-3057(00)00261-6
35. Kalton, G. (1983). Introduction to Survey Sampling. SAGE University Paper series on Quantitative Applications in the Social Sciences. Series no 07-035. London, England: SAGE Publications, Inc.
36. Korhonen, T., Broms, U., Levälahti, E., Koskenvuo, M., & Kaprio, J. (2009). Characteristics and health consequences of intermittent smoking:Long-term follow-up among Finnish adult twins. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 11, 148-155. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ntr/ntn023
37. Kozlowski, L. T., & Herman, C. P. (1984). The interaction of psychosocial and biological determinants of tobacco use: More on the Boundary Model. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 14, 244-256. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.15559-1816.1984.tb02234x
38. Lê, A. D., Quan, B., Juzytch, W., Fletcher, P. J., Joharchi, N., & Shaham, Y. (1998). Reinstatement of alcohol-seeking by priming injections of alcohol and exposure to stress in rats. Psychopharmacology, 135, 169-174. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s002130050498
39. Lerman, C., & Berrettini, W. (2003). Elucidating the role of genetic factors in smoking behavior and nicotine dependence. American Journal of Medical Genetics. Part B, Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 118B(1), 48-54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ajmg.b.10003
40. Lindström, M., & Ostergren, P. O. (2001). Intermittent and daily smokers:Two different socioeconomic patterns, and diverging influence of social participation. Tobacco Control, 10, 258-266. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/ tc.10.3.258
41. Liu, X., Caggiula, A. R., Palmatier, M. I., Donny, E. C., & Sved, A. F. (2008). Cue-induced reinstatement of nicotine-seeking behavior in rats:Effect of bupropion, persistence over repeated tests, and its dependence on training dose. Psychopharmacology, 196, 365-375. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1007/s00213-007-0967-9
42. Marlatt, G. A., & Gordon, J. R. (1985). Relapse Prevention: Maintenance Strategies in the Treatment of Addictive Behaviors. New York, NY:Guilford Press.
43. Niaura, R. S., Rohsenow, D. J., Binkoff, J. A., Monti, P. M., Pedraza, M., & Abrams, D. B. (1988). Relevance of cue reactivity to understanding alcohol and smoking relapse. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 97, 133-152. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.97.2.133
44. Parrott, A. C. (1998). Nesbitt's Paradox resolved? Stress and arousal modulation during cigarette smoking. Addiction, 93, 27-39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1360-0443.1998.931274.x
45. Perkins, K. A., Karelitz, J. L., Conklin, C. A., Sayette, M. A., & Giedgowd, G. E. (2010). Acute negative affect relief from smoking depends on the affect situation and measure but not on nicotine. Biological Psychiatry, 67, 707-714. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2009.12.017
46. Piasecki, T. M., Piper, M. E., & Baker, T. B. (2010). Refining the tobacco dependence phenotype using the Wisconsin Inventory of Smoking Dependence Motives: II. Evidence from a laboratory self-administration assay. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 119, 513-523. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1037/a0020235
47. Piper, M. E., Piasecki, T. M., Federman, E. B., Bolt, D. M., Smith, S. S., & Fiore, M. C. (2004). A multiple motives approach to tobacco dependence:The Wisconsin Inventory of Smoking Dependence Motives. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72, 139-154. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.72.2.139
48. Robinson, T. E., & Berridge, K. C. (1993). The neural basis of drug craving: An incentive-sensitization theory of addiction. Brain Research Reviews, 18, 247-291. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0165-0173(93)90013-P
49. Rose, J. E., Behm, F. M., Westman, E. C., Bates, J. E., & Salley, A. (2003). Pharmacologic and sensorimotor components of satiation in cigarette smoking. Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior, 76, 243-250. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pbb.2003.07.002
50. Russell, M. A. H. (1971). Cigarette smoking: Natural history of a dependence disorder. The British Journal of Medical Psychology, 44, 1-16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8341.1971.tb02141.x
51. Scragg, R., Wellman, R. J., Laugesen, M., & DiFranza, J. R. (2008). Diminished autonomy over tobacco can appear with the first cigarettes. Addictive Behaviors, 33, 689-698. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2007.12.002
52. Shaham, Y., Adamson, L. K., Grocki, S., & Corrigall, W. A. (1997). Reinstatement and spontaneous recovery of nicotine seeking in rats. Psychopharmacology, 130, 396 - 403. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/ s002130050256
53. Shaham, Y., & Miczek, K. A. (2003). Reinstatement: Toward a model of relapse. Psychopharmacology, 168, 1-2. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/ s00213-003-1469-z
54. Shaham, Y., Shalev, U., Lu, L., De Wit, H., & Stewart, J. (2003). The reinstatement model of drug relapse: History, methodology and major findings. Psychopharmacology, 168, 3-20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/ s00213-002-1224-x
55. Shaham, Y., & Stewart, J. (1995). Stress reinstates heroin-seeking in drug-free animals: An effect mimicking heroin, not withdrawal. Psychopharmacology, 119, 334-341. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02246300
56. Shapiro, D., Jamner, L. D., Davydov, D. M., & James, P. (2002). Situations and moods associated with smoking in everyday life. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 16, 342-345. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0893-164X.16.4.342
57. Shiffman, S., Dunbar, M. S., & Benowitz, N. L. (2014). A comparison of nicotine biomarkers and smoking patterns in daily and nondaily smokers. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention, 23, 1264-1272. http://dx.doi.org/10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-13-1014
58. Shiffman, S., Dunbar, M. S., & Ferguson, S. G. (2015). Stimulus control in intermittent and daily smokers. Advance online publication. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/adb0000052
59. Shiffman, S., Dunbar, M. S., Li, X., Scholl, S. M., Tindle, H. A., Anderson, S. J., & Ferguson, S. G. (2014a). Craving in intermittent and daily smokers during ad libitum smoking. Nictotine and Tobacco Research. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ntr/ntu023
60. Shiffman, S., Dunbar, M. S., Li, X., Scholl, S. M., Tindle, H. A., Anderson, S. J., & Ferguson, S. G. (2014b). Smoking patterns and stimulus control in intermittent and daily smokers. PLoS ONE, 9, e89911. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0089911
61. Shiffman, S., Dunbar, M. S., Scholl, S. M., & Tindle, H. A. (2012). Smoking motives of daily and non-daily smokers: A profile analysis. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 126, 362-368. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2012.05.037
62. Shiffman, S., Ferguson, S. G., Dunbar, M. S., & Scholl, S. M. (2012). Tobacco dependence among intermittent smokers. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 14, 1372-1381. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ntr/nts097
63. Shiffman, S., Ferguson, S. G., Gwaltney, C. J., Balabanis, M. H., & Shadel, W. G. (2006). Reduction of abstinence-induced withdrawal and craving using high-dose nicotine replacement therapy. Psychopharmacology (Berlin), 184, 637-644. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00213-005-0184-3
64. Shiffman, S., Gwaltney, C. J., Balabanis, M. H., Liu, K. S., Paty, J. A., Kassel, J. D.,... Gnys, M. (2002). Immediate antecedents of cigarette smoking: An analysis from ecological momentary assessment. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 111, 531-545. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.111.4.531
65. Shiffman, S., Hickcox, M., Paty, J. A., Gnys, M., Kassel, J. D., & Richards, T. J. (1996). Progression from a smoking lapse to relapse: Prediction from abstinence violation effects, nicotine dependence, and lapse characteristics. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64, 993-1002. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.64.5.993
66. Shiffman, S., & Paty, J. (2006). Smoking patterns and dependence: Contrasting chippers and heavy smokers. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 115, 509-523. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.115.3.509
67. Shiffman, S., Paty, J. A., Gnys, M., Kassel, J. D., & Elash, C. (1995). Nicotine withdrawal in chippers and regular smokers: Subjective and cognitive effects. Health Psychology, 14, 301-309. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1037/0278-6133.14.4.301
68. Shiffman, S., Paty, J. A., Gnys, M., Kassel, J. A., & Hickcox, M. (1996). First lapses to smoking: Within-subjects analysis of real-time reports. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64, 366-379. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.64.2.366
69. Shiffman, S., Paty, J. A., Kassel, J. D., Gnys, M., & Zettler-Segal, M. (1994). Smoking behavior and smoking history of tobacco chippers. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 2, 126-142. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/1064-1297.2.2.126
70. Shiffman, S., Scharf, D. M., Shadel, W. G., Gwaltney, C. J., Dang, Q., Paton, S. M., & Clark, D. B. (2006). Analyzing milestones in smoking cessation: Illustration in a nicotine patch trial in adult smokers. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 74, 276-285. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1037/0022-006X.74.2.276
71. Shiffman, S., Stone, A. A., & Hufford, M. R. (2008). Ecological momentary assessment. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 4, 1-32. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.3.022806.091415
72. Shiffman, S., Tindle, H., Li, X., Scholl, S., Dunbar, M., & Mitchell-Miland, C. (2012). Characteristics and smoking patterns of intermittent smokers. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 20, 264-277. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0027546
73. Shiffman, S., Waters, A. J., & Hickcox, M. (2004). The Nicotine Dependence Syndrome Scale: A multi-dimensional measure of nicotine dependence. Nicotine and Tobacco Research, 6, 327-348. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1080/1462220042000202481
74. Singer, J. D. (1998). Using SAS PROC MIXED to fit multilevel models, hierarchical models, and individual growth models. Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics, 23, 323-355. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/ 1165280
75. Sobell, M. B., Sobell, L. C., & Maisto, S. A. (1979). Time-Line Follow-Back assessment method [TLFB]. In D. J. Lettieri, J. E. Nelson, & M. A. Sayers (Eds.), Alcoholism treatment assessment research instruments (NIAAA Treatment Handbook Series, Vol. 2, pp. 167-188). Rockville, MD: National Institute on Alcoholism and Alcohol Abuse.
76. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. (2013). Results from the 2012 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: National Findings. Retrieved from http://www.samhsa.gov/data/NSDUH/ 2012SummNatFindDetTables/DetTabs/NSDUH-DetTabsSect6pe Tabs1to54-2012.htm#Tab6.5B Thrul, J., Bühler, A., & Ferguson, S. G. (2014). Situational and mood factors associated with smoking in young adult light and heavy smokers. Drug and Alcohol Review, 33, 420-427. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/dar.12164
77. Tiffany, S. T. (1990). A cognitive model of drug urges and drug-use behavior: Role of automatic and nonautomatic processes. Psychological Review, 97, 147-168. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.97.2.147
78. Tindle, H. A., & Shiffman, S. (2011). Smoking cessation behavior among intermittent smokers versus daily smokers. American Journal of Public Health, 101, e1-e3. http://dx.doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2011.300186
79. Trinidad, D. R., Pérez-Stable, E. J., Emery, S. L., White, M. M., Grana, R. A., & Messer, K. S. (2009). Intermittent and light daily smoking across racial/ethnic groups in the United States. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 11, 203-210. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ntr/ntn018
80. Wellman, R. J., DiFranza, J. R., Savageau, J. A., Godiwala, S., Friedman, K., & Hazelton, J. (2005). Measuring adults' loss of autonomy over nicotine use: The Hooked on Nicotine Checklist. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 7, 157-161. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14622200412331328394
81. World Health Organization. (2007). WHO global infobase on-line. Retrieved from www.who.iint/infobase/report.aspx
82. Zeger, S. L., Liang, K. Y., & Albert, P. S. (1988). Models for longitudinal data: A generalized estimating equation approach. Biometrics, 44, 1049-1060. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2531734