Complex regional pain syndrome-significant progress in understanding

Pain

Volumn 156, Issue 4, 2015, Pages S94-S103

  Birklein, Frank ^a   Schlereth, Tanja ^a  

^a JOHANNES GUTENBERG UNIVERSITY   (Germany)

Author keywords

Bioanalysis; Central reorganization; Complex regional pain syndrome; Neuroplasticity; Pathophysiology; Posttraumatic inflammation

Indexed keywords

BACLOFEN; BISPHOSPHONIC ACID DERIVATIVE; DIMETHYL SULFOXIDE; GLUCOCORTICOID; IMMUNOGLOBULIN; KETAMINE;

ARTICLE; CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM; CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM DISEASE; COMPLEX REGIONAL PAIN SYNDROME; HUMAN; INFLAMMATION; MOTOR DYSFUNCTION; NERVE CELL PLASTICITY; NONHUMAN; PERIPHERAL NEUROPATHY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RODENT MODEL; SENSORY DYSFUNCTION; SKIN BIOPSY; ANIMAL; COMPLEX REGIONAL PAIN SYNDROMES; COMPLICATION; DISEASE COURSE; PHYSIOLOGY;

ANIMALS; COMPLEX REGIONAL PAIN SYNDROMES; DISEASE PROGRESSION; HUMANS; INFLAMMATION; NEURONAL PLASTICITY;

EID: 84937143023     PISSN: 03043959     EISSN: 18726623     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1097/01.j.pain.0000460344.54470.20     Document Type: Article

References (121)

1. Bank PJ, van Rooijen DE, Marinus J, Reilmann R, van Hilten JJ. Force modulation deficits in complex regional pain syndrome: A potential role for impaired sense of force production. Eur J Pain 2014;18:1013-23.
2. BeerthuizenA,Stronks DL, Van'tSpijker A,Yaksh A,HanraetsBM,Klein J, Huygen FJ. Demographic and medical parameters in the development of complex regional pain syndrome type 1 (CRPS1): prospective study on 596 patients with a fracture. PAIN 2012;153:1187-92.
3. Birklein F, Drummond PD, Li W, Schlereth T, Albrecht N, Finch PM, Dawson LF, Clark JD, Kingery WS. Activation of cutaneous immune responses in complex regional pain syndrome. J Pain 2014;15: 485-95.
4. Birklein F, Riedl B, Claus D, Neundörfer B. Pattern of autonomic dysfunction in time course of complex regional pain syndrome. Clin Auton Res 1998;8:79-85.
5. Birklein F, Riedl B, Sieweke N, Weber M, Neundorfer B. Neurological findings in complex regional pain syndromes-Analysis of 145 cases. Acta Neurol Scand 2000;101:262-9.
6. Birklein F, Schmelz M, Schifter S, Weber M. The important role of neuropeptides in complex regional pain syndrome. Neurology 2001;57: 2179-84.
7. Blair SJ, Chinthagada M, Hoppenstehdt D, Kijowski R, Fareed J. Role of neuropeptides in pathogenesis of reflex sympathetic dystrophy. Acta Orthop Belg 1998;64:448-51.
8. Caty G, Hu L, Legrain V, Plaghki L, Mouraux A. Psychophysical and electrophysiological evidence for nociceptive dysfunction in complex regional pain syndrome. PAIN 2013;154:2521-8.
9. Coderre TJ, Xanthos DN, Francis L, Bennett GJ. Chronic post-ischemia pain (CPIP): a novel animal model of complex regional pain syndrome-Type I (CRPS-I; reflex sympathetic dystrophy) produced by prolonged hindpaw ischemia and reperfusion in the rat. PAIN 2004;112:94-105.
10. Cohen H, McCabe C, Harris N, Hall J, Lewis J, Blake DR. Clinical evidence of parietal cortex dysfunction and correlation with extent of allodynia in CRPS type 1. Eur J Pain 2013;17:527-38.
11. de Jong JR, Vlaeyen JW, Onghena P, Cuypers C, den Hollander M, Ruijgrok J.Reduction of pain-related fear in complex regional pain syndrome type I: the application of graded exposure in vivo. PAIN 2005;116:264-75.
12. de Rooij AM, Perez RS, Huygen FJ, Eijs FV, Kleef MV, Bauer MC, van Hilten JJ, Marinus J. Spontaneous onset of complex regional pain syndrome. Eur J Pain 2009;14:510-13.
13. Deuschl G, Blumberg H, Lücking CH. Tremor in reflex sympathetic dystrophy. Arch Neurol 1991;48:1247-53.
14. Drummond ES, Dawson LF, Finch PM, Bennett GJ, Drummond PD. Increased expression of cutaneous alpha1-Adrenoceptors after chronic constriction injury in rats. J Pain 2014;15:188-96.
15. Dubuis E, Thompson V, Leite MI, Blaes F, Maihofner C, Greensmith D, Vincent A, Shenker N, Kuttikat A, Leuwer M, Goebel A. Longstanding complex regional pain syndrome is associated with activating autoantibodies against alpha-1a adrenoceptors. PAIN 2014;155:2408-17.
16. Egloff N, SabbioniME, Salathe C, Wiest R, Juengling FD. Nondermatomal somatosensory deficits in patients with chronic pain disorder: clinical findings and hypometabolic pattern in FDG-PET. PAIN 2009;145:252-8.
17. Eisenberg E, Chistyakov AV, Yudashkin M, Kaplan B, Hafner H, Feinsod M. Evidence for cortical hyperexcitability of the affected limb representation area in CRPS: a psychophysical and transcranial magnetic stimulation study. PAIN 2005;113:99-105.
18. Eisenberg E, Erlich T, Zinder O, Lichinsky S, Diamond E, Pud D, Davar G. Plasma endothelin-1 levels in patients with complex regional pain syndrome. Eur J Pain 2004;8:533-8.
19. FischerSG, ZuurmondWW, Birklein F, Loer SA,PerezRS.Anti-inflammatory treatment of Complex Regional Pain Syndrome. PAIN 2010;151:251-6.
20. Frettloh J, Huppe M, Maier C. Severity and specificity of neglect-like symptoms in patients with complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS) compared to chronic limb pain of other origins. PAIN 2006;124:184-9.
21. Gallagher JJ, Tajerian M, Guo T, Shi X, Li W, Zheng M, Peltz G, Kingery W, Clark JD. Acute and chronic phases of complex regional pain syndrome in mice are accompanied by distinct transcriptional changes in the spinal cord. Mol Pain 2013;9:40.
22. Geber C, Magerl W, Fondel R, Fechir M, Rolke R, Vogt T, Treede RD, Birklein F. Numbness in clinical and experimental pain-A crosssectional study exploring the mechanisms of reduced tactile function. PAIN 2008;139:73-81.
23. Geha PY, Baliki MN, Harden RN, Bauer WR, Parrish TB, Apkarian AV. The brain in chronic CRPS pain: abnormal gray-white matter interactions in emotional and autonomic regions. Neuron 2008;60:570-81.
24. Gierthmuhlen J, Maier C, Baron R, Tolle T, Treede RD, Birbaumer N, Huge V, Koroschetz J, Krumova EK, Lauchart M, Maihofner C, Richter H, Westermann A. Sensory signs in complex regional pain syndrome and peripheral nerve injury. PAIN 2012;153:765-74.
25. Goebel A, Baranowski A, Maurer K, Ghiai A, McCabe C, Ambler G. Intravenous immunoglobulin treatment of the complex regional pain syndrome: a randomized trial. Ann Intern Med 2010;152:152-8.
26. Gradl G, Gaida S, Finke B, Gierer P, Mittlmeier T, Vollmar B. Exaggeration of tissue trauma induces signs and symptoms of acute CRPS I, however displays distinct differences to experimental CRPS II. Neurosci Lett 2006;402:267-72.
27. Groeneweg JG, Huygen FJ, Heijmans-Antonissen C, Niehof S, Zijlstra FJ. Increased endothelin-1 and diminished nitric oxide levels in blister fluids of patients with intermediate cold type complex regional pain syndrome type 1. BMC Musculoskelet Disord 2006;7:91.
28. Grossman RM, Krueger J, Yourish D, Granelli-Piperno A, Murphy DP, May LT, Kupper TS, Sehgal PB, Gottlieb AB. Interleukin 6 is expressed in high levels in psoriatic skin and stimulates proliferation of cultured human keratinocytes. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1989;86:6367-71.
29. Guo TZ, Offley SC, Boyd EA, Jacobs CR, Kingery WS. Substance P signaling contributes to the vascular and nociceptive abnormalities observed in a tibial fracture rat model of complex regional pain syndrome type I. PAIN 2004;108:95-107.
30. Guo TZ, Wei T, Kingery WS. Glucocorticoid inhibition of vascular abnormalities in a tibia fracture rat model of complex regional pain syndrome type I. PAIN 2006;121:158-67.
31. Harden RN, Bruehl S, Perez RS, Birklein F, Marinus J, Maihofner C, Lubenow T, Buvanendran A, Mackey S, Graciosa J, Mogilevski M, Ramsden C, Chont M, Vatine JJ. Validation of proposed diagnostic criteria (the "Budapest Criteria") for Complex Regional Pain Syndrome. PAIN 2010;150:268-74.
32. Harden RN, Bruehl S, Perez RS, Birklein F, Marinus J, Maihofner C, Lubenow T, Buvanendran A, Mackey S, Graciosa J, Mogilevski M, Ramsden C, Schlereth T, Chont M, Vatine JJ. Development of a severity score for CRPS. PAIN 2010;151:870-6.
33. Haroutounian S, Nikolajsen L, Bendtsen TF, Finnerup NB, Kristensen AD, Hasselstrom JB, Jensen TS. Primary afferent input critical for maintaining spontaneous pain in peripheral neuropathy. PAIN 2014;155:1272-9.
34. Hartung JE, Ciszek BP, Nackley AG. b2-And b3-Adrenergic receptors drive COMT-dependent pain by increasing production of nitric oxide and cytokines. PAIN 2014;155:1346-55.
35. Hawley JS, Weiner WJ. Psychogenic dystonia and peripheral trauma. Neurology 2011;77:496-502.
36. Heijmans-AntonissenC,Wesseldijk F,MunnikesRJ, Huygen FJ, van derMP, HopWC, Hooijkaas H, Zijlstra FJ.Multiplex bead array assay for detection of 25 soluble cytokines in blister fluid of patients with complex regional pain syndrome type 1. Mediators Inflamm 2006;2006:28398.
37. Hou Q, Barr T, Gee L, Vickers J, Wymer J, Borsani E, Rodella L, Getsios S, Burdo T, Eisenberg E, Guha U, Lavker R, Kessler J, Chittur S, Fiorino D, Rice F, Albrecht P. Keratinocyte expression of calcitonin gene-related peptide b: implications for neuropathic and inflammatory pain mechanisms. PAIN 2011;152:2036-51.
38. Jin EH, Zhang E, Ko Y, Sim WS, Moon DE, Yoon KJ, Hong JH, Lee WH. Genome-wide expression profiling of complex regional pain syndrome. PLoS ONE 2013;8:e79435.
39. Kemler MA, de Vet HC,Barendse GA, van den Wildenberg FA, van KleefM. Effect of spinal cord stimulation for chronic complex regional pain syndrome Type I: five-year final follow-up of patients in a randomized controlled trial. J Neurosurg 2008;108:292-8.
40. Kharkar S, Venkatesh YS, Grothusen JR, Rojas L, Schwartzman RJ. Skin biopsy in complex regional pain syndrome: case series and literature review. Pain Physician 2012;15:255-66.
41. Khodorova A, Montmayeur JP, Strichartz G. Endothelin receptors and pain. J Pain 2009;10:4-28.
42. Klega A, Eberle T, Buchholz HG, Maus S, Maihofner C, Schreckenberger M, Birklein F. Central opioidergic neurotransmission in complex regional pain syndrome. Neurology 2010;75:129-36.
43. Klein MM, Lee JW, Siegel SM, Downs HM, Oaklander AL. Endoneurial pathology of the needlestick-nerve-injury model of Complex Regional Pain Syndrome, including rats with and without pain behaviors. Eur J Pain 2012;16:28-37.
44. Kohr D, Singh P, Tschernatsch M, Kaps M, Pouokam E, Diener M, Kummer W, Birklein F, Vincent A, Goebel A, Wallukat G, Blaes F. Autoimmunity against the b2 adrenergic receptor and muscarinic-2 receptor in complex regional pain syndrome. PAIN 2011;152:2690-700.
45. Kolb L, Lang C, Seifert F, Maihofner C. Cognitive correlates of "neglectlike syndrome" in patients with complex regional pain syndrome. PAIN 2012;153:1063-73.
46. Kramer HH, Eberle T, Uceyler N, Wagner I, Klonschinsky T, Muller LP, Sommer C, Birklein F. TNF-A in CRPS and 'normal' trauma-significant differences between tissue and serum. PAIN 2011;152:285-90.
47. Kramer HH, Hofbauer LC, SzalayG, Breimhorst M, Eberle T, Zieschang K, Rauner M, Schlereth T, Schreckenberger M, Birklein F. Osteoprotegerin: a new biomarker for impaired bone metabolism in complex regional pain syndrome? PAIN 2014;155:889-95.
48. KressM, Huttenhofer A, Landry M, Kuner R, Favereaux A, Greenberg D, Bednarik J, Heppenstall P, Kronenberg F, Malcangio M, Rittner H, Uceyler N, Trajanoski Z, Mouritzen P, Birklein F, Sommer C, Soreq H. microRNAs in nociceptive circuits as predictors of future clinical applications. Front Mol Neurosci 2013;6:33.
49. Krumova EK, Frettloh J, Klauenberg S, Richter H, Wasner G, Maier C. Long-term skin temperature measurements-A practical diagnostic tool in complex regional pain syndrome. PAIN 2008;140:8-22.
50. KwakKH,HanCG, Lee SH, JeonY,ParkSS,KimSO, BaekWY,Hong JG, Lim DG. Reactive oxygen species in rats with chronic post-ischemia pain. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 2009;53:648-56.
51. Laethem T, De Lepeleire I, McCrea J, Zhang J, Majumdar A, Musson D, Rogers D, Li S, Guillaume M, Parneix-Spake A, Deutsch P. Tissue penetration by ertapenem, a parenteral carbapenem administered once daily, in suction-induced skin blister fluid in healthy young volunteers. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2003;47:1439-42.
52. Laferriere A, Abaji R, Tsai CY, Ragavendran JV, Coderre TJ. Topical combinations to treat microvascular dysfunction of chronic postischemia pain. Anesth Analg 2014;118:830-40.
53. Lang AE, Angel M, Bhatia K, Chen R, Fahn S, Hallett M, Schrag A, Thompson P. Myoclonus in complex regional pain syndrome. Mov Disord 2008;24:314-6.
54. Lenz M, Uceyler N, Frettloh J, Hoffken O, Krumova EK, Lissek S, Reinersmann A, Sommer C, Stude P,Waaga-Gasser AM, Tegenthoff M, Maier C. Local cytokine changes in complex regional pain syndrome type I (CRPS I) resolve after 6 months. PAIN 2013;154:2142-9.
55. LiW,Shi X,Wang L,Guo T,Wei T,ChengK,RiceKC,KingeryWS,Clark JD. Epidermal adrenergic signaling contributes to inflammation and pain sensitization in a rat model of complex regional pain syndrome. PAIN 2013;154:1224-36.
56. Li WW, Guo T-Z, Liang DY, Sun Y, Kingery WS, Clark DJ. Substance P signaling controls mast cell activation, degranulation, and nociceptive sensitization in a rat fracture model of complex regional pain syndrome. Anesthesiology 2012;116:882-95.
57. Li WW, Sabsovich I, Guo TZ, Zhao R, Kingery WS, Clark JD. The role of enhanced cutaneous IL-1beta signaling in a rat tibia fracture model of complex regional pain syndrome. PAIN 2009;144:303-13.
58. Lorenz M,Wilck N,Meiners S, Ludwig A, Baumann G, Stangl K, Stangl V. Proteasome inhibition prevents experimentally-induced endothelial dysfunction. Life Sci 2009;84:929-34.
59. Maihofner C, Baron R, Decol R, Binder A, Birklein F, Deuschl G, Handwerker HO, Schattschneider J. The motor system shows adaptive changes in complex regional pain syndrome. Brain 2007;130:2671-87.
60. Maihofner C, Forster C, Birklein F, Neundorfer B, Handwerker HO. Brain processing during mechanical hyperalgesia in complex regional pain syndrome: a functional MRI study. PAIN 2005;114:93-103.
61. Maihofner C, Handwerker HO, Neundorfer B, Birklein F. Mechanical hyperalgesia in complex-regional pain syndrome: A role for tnf-Alpha? Neurology 2005;65:311-3.
62. Maihöfner C, Handwerker HO, Neundorfer B, Birklein F. Cortical reorganization during recovery from complex regional pain syndrome. Neurology 2004;63:693-701.
63. Mailis-Gagnon A, Giannoylis I, Downar J, Kwan CL, Mikulis DJ, Crawley AP, Nicholson K, Davis KD. Altered central somatosensory processing in chronic pain patients with "hysterical" anesthesia. Neurology 2003;60:1501-7.
64. Mainka T, Bischoff FS, Baron R, Krumova EK, Nicolas V, Pennekamp W, Treede RD, Vollert J, Westermann A, Maier C. Comparison of muscle and joint pressure-pain thresholds in patients with complex regional pain syndrome and upper limb pain of other origin. PAIN 2014;155:591-7.
65. Marinus J, Moseley GL, Birklein F, Baron R, Maihofner C, Kingery WS, van Hilten JJ. Clinical features and pathophysiology of complex regional pain syndrome. Lancet Neurol 2011;10:637-48.
66. McCabe CS, Haigh RC, Ring EF, Halligan PW, Wall PD, Blake DR. A controlled pilot study of the utility of mirror visual feedback in the treatment of complex regional pain syndrome (type 1). Rheumatology (Oxford) 2003;42:97-101.
67. McDonald MK, Tian Y, Qureshi RA, Gormley M, Ertel A, Gao R, Aradillas Lopez E, Alexander GM, Sacan A, Fortina P, Ajit SK. Functional significance of macrophage-derived exosomes in inflammation and pain. PAIN 2014;155:1527-39.
68. Meulders A, Harvie DS, Bowering JK, Caragianis S, Vlaeyen JW, Moseley GL. Contingency learning deficits and generalization in chronic unilateral hand pain patients. J Pain 2014;15:1046-56.
69. Moseley GL. Why do people with complex regional pain syndrome take longer to recognize their affected hand? Neurology 2004;62:2182-6.
70. Moseley GL. Graded motor imagery for pathologic pain: a randomized controlled trial. Neurology 2006;67:2129-34.
71. Moseley GL, Gallace A, Iannetti GD. Spatially defined modulation of skin temperature and hand ownership of both hands in patients with unilateral complex regional pain syndrome. Brain 2012;135:3676-86.
72. Moseley GL, Gallace A, Spence C. Space-based, but not arm-based, shift in tactile processing in complex regional pain syndrome and its relationship to cooling of the affected limb. Brain 2009;132:3142-51.
73. Moseley GL, Herbert RD, Parsons T, Lucas S, Van Hilten JJ, Marinus J. Intense pain soon after wrist fracture strongly predicts who will develop complex regional pain syndrome: prospective cohort study. J Pain 2014;15:16-23.
74. Moseley GL, Parsons TJ, Spence C. Visual distortion of a limb modulates the pain and swelling evoked by movement. Curr Biol 2008;18:R1047-8.
75. Moseley GL, Zalucki N, Birklein F,Marinus J, van Hilten JJ, Luomajoki H. Thinking about movement hurts: the effect of motor imagery on pain and swelling in people with chronic arm pain. Arthritis Rheum 2008;59: 623-31.
76. Munts AG, Mugge W, Meurs TS, Schouten AC, Marinus J, Moseley GL, van der Helm FC, van Hilten JJ. Fixed dystonia in complex regional pain syndrome: a descriptive and computational modeling approach. BMC Neurol 2011;11:53.
77. O'Connell NE,WandBM,McAuley J,Marston L,Moseley GL. Interventions for treating pain and disability in adults with complex regional pain syndrome. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2013;4:CD009416.
78. Oaklander AL, Rissmiller JG, Gelman LB, Zheng L, Chang Y, Gott R. Evidence of focal small-fiber axonal degeneration in complex regional pain syndrome-I (reflex sympathetic dystrophy). PAIN 2006;120:235-43.
79. Orlova IA, Alexander GM, Qureshi RA, Sacan A, Graziano A, Barrett JE, Schwartzman RJ, Ajit SK. MicroRNA modulation in complex regional pain syndrome. J Transl Med 2011;9:195.
80. Ota H, Arai T, Iwatsuki K, Urano H, Kurahashi T, Kato S, Yamamoto M, Hirata H. Pathological mechanism of musculoskeletal manifestations associated with CRPS type II: an animal study. PAIN 2014;155: 1976-85.
81. Parkitny L, McAuley JH, Di Pietro F, Stanton TR, O'Connell NE, Marinus J, vanHilten JJ,MoseleyGL. Inflammation in complex regional pain syndrome: a systematic review and meta-Analysis. Neurology 2013;80:106-17.
82. Peltz E, Seifert F, Lanz S, Muller R, Maihofner C. Impaired hand size estimation in CRPS. J Pain 2011;12:1095-101.
83. Pepper A, Li W, Kingery WS, Angst MS, Curtin CM, Clark JD. Changes resembling complex regional pain syndrome following surgery and immobilization. J Pain 2013;14:516-24.
84. Postlethwaite AE, Lachman LB, Kang AH. Induction of fibroblast proliferation by interleukin-1 derived from human monocytic leukemia cells. Arthritis Rheum 1984;27:995-1001.
85. Punt TD, Cooper L, Hey M, Johnson MI. Neglect-like symptoms in complex regional pain syndrome: Learned nonuse by another name? PAIN 2013;154:200-3.
86. Reinersmann A, Landwehrt J, Krumova EK, Ocklenburg S, Gunturkun O, Maier C. Impaired spatial body representation in complex regional pain syndrome type 1 (CRPS I). PAIN 2012;153:2174-81.
87. Ritz BW, Alexander GM, Nogusa S, Perreault MJ, Peterlin BL, Grothusen JR, Schwartzman RJ. Elevated blood levels of inflammatory monocytes (CD141 CD161) in patients with complex regional pain syndrome. Clin Exp Immunol 2011;164:108-17.
88. Schaible HG, Ebersberger A, von Banchet GS. Mechanisms of pain in arthritis. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2002;966:343-54.
89. Schattschneider J, Hartung K, Stengel M, Ludwig J, Binder A, Wasner G, Baron R. Endothelial dysfunction in cold type complex regional pain syndrome. Neurology 2006;67:673-5.
90. Schilder JC, Sigtermans MJ, Schouten AC, Putter H, Dahan A,Noldus LP, Marinus J, van Hilten JJ. Pain relief is associated with improvement in motor function in complex regional pain syndrome type 1: secondary analysis of a placebo-controlled study on the effects of ketamine. J Pain 2013;14:1514-21.
91. Schinkel C, Scherens A, Koller M, Roellecke G, Muhr G, Maier C. Systemic inflammatory mediators in post-traumatic complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS I)-longitudinal investigations and differences to control groups. Eur J Med Res 2009;14:130-5.
92. Schlereth T, Breimhorst M, Werner N, Pottschmidt K, Drummond PD, Birklein F. Inhibition of neuropeptide degradation suppresses sweating but increases the area of the axon reflex flare. Exp Dermatol 2013;22: 299-301.
93. Schlereth T, Dittmar JO, Seewald B, Birklein F. Peripheral amplification of sweating-A role for calcitonin gene-related peptide. J Physiol 2006; 576:823-32.
94. Schrag A, TrimbleM,Quinn N, Bhatia K. The syndrome of fixed dystonia: an evaluation of 103 patients. Brain 2004;127:2360-72.
95. Schwartzman RJ, Alexander GM, Grothusen JR, Paylor T, Reichenberger E, Perreault M. Outpatient intravenous ketamine for the treatment of complex regional pain syndrome: A double-blind placebo controlled study. PAIN 2009;147:107-15.
96. Schwenkreis P, Janssen F, Rommel O, Pleger B, Volker B, Hosbach I, Dertwinkel R, Maier C, Tegenthoff M. Bilateral motor cortex disinhibition in complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS) type I of the hand. Neurology 2003;61:515-9.
97. Sen A, Most P, Peppel K. Induction of microRNA-138 by proinflammatory cytokines causes endothelial cell dysfunction. FEBS Lett 2014;588:906-14.
98. Siegel SM, Lee JW, Oaklander AL. Needlestick distal nerve injury in rats models symptoms of complex regional pain syndrome. Anesth Analg 2007;105:1820-9.
99. Stanton TR, Wand BM, Carr DB, Birklein F, Wasner GL, O'Connell NE. Local anaesthetic sympathetic blockade for complex regional pain syndrome. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2013;8:CD004598.
100. Tajerian M, Leu D, Zou Y, Sahbaie P, Li W, Khan H, Hsu V, Kingery W, Huang TT, Becerra L, Clark JD. Brain neuroplastic changes accompany anxiety and memory deficits in a model of complex regional pain syndrome. Anesthesiology 2014;121:852-65.
101. TerkelsenAJ,Gierthmuhlen J, Finnerup NB,HojlundAP, Jensen TS. Bilateral hypersensitivity to capsaicin, thermal, and mechanical stimuli in unilateral complex regional pain syndrome. Anesthesiology 2014;120:1225-36.
102. TerkelsenAJ, Gierthmuhlen J, Petersen LJ, Knudsen L,ChristensenNJ,Kehr J, Yoshitake T, Madsen CS, Wasner G, Baron R, Jensen TS. Cutaneous noradrenalinemeasured bymicrodialysis in complex regional pain syndrome during whole-body cooling and heating. Exp Neurol 2013;247:456-65.
103. Uceyler N, Eberle T, Rolke R, Birklein F, Sommer C. Differential expression patterns of cytokines in complex regional pain syndrome. PAIN 2007;132:195-205.
104. Uceyler N, Zeller D, Kahn AK, Kewenig S, Kittel-Schneider S, Schmid A, Casanova-Molla J, Reiners K, Sommer C. Small fibre pathology in patients with fibromyalgia syndrome. Brain 2013;136:1857-67.
105. van der Laan L, Kapitein P, Verhofstad A, Hendriks T, Goris RJ. Clinical signs and symptoms of acute reflex sympathetic dystrophy in one hindlimb of the rat, induced by infusion of a free-radical donor. Acta Orthop Belg 1998;64:210-7.
106. van Bussel CM, Stronks DL, Huygen FJ. Complex regional pain syndrome type I of the knee: a systematic literature review. Eur J Pain 2014;18:766-73.
107. van de Meent H, Oerlemans M, Bruggeman A, Klomp F, van Dongen R, Oostendorp R, Frolke JP. Safety of "pain exposure" physical therapy in patients with complex regional pain syndrome type 1. PAIN 2011;152: 1431-8.
108. van Hilten BJ, van de Beek WJ, Hoff JI, Voormolen JH, Delhaas EM. Intrathecal baclofen for the treatment of dystonia in patients with reflex sympathetic dystrophy. N Engl J Med 2000;343:625-30.
109. van Hilten JJ. Movement disorders in complex regional pain syndrome. Pain Med 2010;11:1274-7.
110. van Hilten JJ, van de Beek WJ, Roep BO. Multifocal or generalized tonic dystonia of complex regional pain syndrome: a distinct clinical entity associated with HLA-DR13. Ann Neurol 2000;48:113-6.
111. van RijnMA,Marinus J,PutterH, BosselaarSR,MoseleyGL, vanHilten JJ. Spreading of complex regional pain syndrome: not a random process. J Neural Transm 2011;118:1301-9.
112. van Rooijen DE, Geraedts EJ, Marinus J, Jankovic J, van Hilten JJ. Peripheral trauma and movement disorders: a systematic review of reported cases. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2011;82:892-8.
113. van Rooijen DE, Marinus J, Schouten AC, Noldus LP, van Hilten JJ. Muscle hyperalgesia correlates with motor function in complex regional pain syndrome type 1. J Pain 2013;14:446-54.
114. van Rooijen DE, Marinus J, van Hilten JJ. Muscle hyperalgesia is widespread in patients with complex regional pain syndrome. PAIN 2013;154:2745-9.
115. Veldman PH, Reynen HM, Arntz IE, Goris RJ. Signs and symptoms of reflex sympathetic dystrophy: prospective study of 829 patients. Lancet 1993;342:1012-6.
116. Verdugo RJ, Bell LA, Campero M, Salvat F, Tripplett B, Sonnad J, Ochoa JL. Spectrum of cutaneous hyperalgesias/allodynias in neuropathic pain patients. Acta Neurol Scand 2004;110:368-76.
117. Weber M, Birklein F, Neundorfer B, Schmelz M. Facilitated neurogenic inflammation in complex regional pain syndrome. PAIN 2001;91:251-7.
118. Wei T, Li WW, Guo TZ, Zhao R, Wang L, Clark DJ, Oaklander AL, Schmelz M, Kingery WS. Post-junctional facilitation of Substance P signaling in a tibia fracture rat model of complex regional pain syndrome type I. PAIN 2009;144:278-86.
119. Wuppenhorst N,Maier C, Frettloh J, PennekampW, Nicolas V. Sensitivity and specificity of 3-phase bone scintigraphy in the diagnosis of complex regional pain syndrome of the upper extremity. Clin J Pain 2010;26:182-9.
120. Xanthos DN, Bennett GJ, Coderre TJ. Norepinephrine-induced nociception and vasoconstrictor hypersensitivity in rats with chronic post-ischemia pain. PAIN 2008;137:640-51.
121. Zollinger PE, Tuinebreijer WE, Kreis RW, Breederveld RS. Effect of vitaminCon frequency of reflex sympathetic dystrophy inwrist fractures: a randomised trial. Lancet 1999;354:2025-8.