Tropical montane cloud forests: State of knowledge and sustainability perspectives in a changing world

Tropical Montane Cloud Forests: Science for Conservation and Management

Volumn , Issue , 2011, Pages 691-740

  Bruijnzeel, L A ^a   Kappelle, M ^b   Mulligan, M ^c   Scatena, F N ^d  

^a VU UNIVERSITY AMSTERDAM   (Netherlands)

^b Environmental Monitoring and Modelling Research Group Department of Geography King's College London ^*  (Netherlands)

^c KING'S COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

^d UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84933503113     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511778384.074     Document Type: Chapter

References (410)

1. Aiba, S., and K. Kitayama (1999). Structure, composition and species diversity in an altitude–substrate matrix of rain forest tree communities on Mount Kinabalu, Borneo. Plant Ecology 140: 139–157.
2. Aiba, S., M. Takyu, and K. Kitayama (2005). Dynamics, productivity and species richness of tropical rainforests along elevational and edaphic gradients on Mount Kinabalu, Borneo. Ecological Research 20: 279–286.
3. Aide, T. M., and H. R. Grau (2004). Globalization, migration, and Latin American ecosystems. Science 305: 1915–1916.
4. Aldrich, M., C. Billington, M. Edwards, and R. Laidlaw (1997a). Tropical Montane Cloud Forests: An Urgent Priority for Conservation, WCMC Biodiversity Bulletin No. 2. Cambridge, UK: UNEP–World Conservation Monitoring Centre.
5. Aldrich, M., C. Billington, M. Edwards, and R. Laidlaw (1997b). A Global Directory of Tropical Montane Cloud Forests. Cambridge, UK: UNEP– World Conservation Monitoring Centre.
6. Aldrich, M., P. Bubb, S. Hostettler, and H. van der Wiel (2000). Tropical Montane Cloud Forests: Time for Action. Gland, Switzerland: WWF International and IUCN.
7. Amelung, T., and M. Diehl (1992). Deforestation of Tropical Rain Forests: Economic Causes and Impacts on Development, Kieler Studien No. 241. Tübingen, Germany: JCB Mohr Verlag.
8. Aravena, R., O. Suzuki, and A. Pollastri (1989). Coastal fog and its relation to ground-water in the IV region of northernChile. ChemicalGeology 79: 83–91.
9. Asquith, N., and S. Wunder (eds.) (2008). Payments for Watershed Services: The Bellagio Conversations. Santa Cruz, Bolivia: Fundación Natura Bolivia, Jakarta, Indonesia: CIFOR, and London: International Institute for Environment and Development.
10. Asquith, N. M., M. T. Vargas, and S. Wunder (2008). Selling two environmental services: in-kind payments for bird habitat and watershed protection in Los Negros, Bolivia. Ecological Economics 65: 675–684.
11. Ataroff, M. (1998). Importance of cloud water in Venezuelan Andean cloud forest water dynamics. In Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Fog and Fog Collection, eds. R. S. Schemenauer and H. A. Bridgman, pp. 25–28. Ottawa, Canada: IDRC.
12. Ataroff, M., and F. Rada (2000). Deforestation impact on water dynamics in a Venezuelan Andean cloud forest. Ambio 29: 440–444.
13. Aylett, G. P. (1985). Irradiance interception, leaf conductance and photosynthesis in Jamaican upper montane rain forest trees. Photosynthetica 19: 323–337.
14. Aylward, B. (2005). Land-use, hydrological function and economic valuation. In Forests, Water and People in the Humid Tropics, eds. M. Bonell and L. A. Bruijnzeel, pp. 99–120. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
15. Bach, K. (2004). Vegetationskundliche Untersuchungen zur Höhenzonierung tropischer Bergregenwa¨lder in den Anden Boliviens. Ph.D. thesis, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany.
16. Bach, K., M. Kessler, and S. R. Gradstein (2007). A simulation approach to determine statistical significance of species turnover peaks in a speciesrich tropical cloud forest. Diversity and Distributions 13: 863–870.
17. Backeus, I. (1992). Distribution and vegetation dynamics of humid savannas in Africa and Asia. Journal of Vegetation Science 3: 345–356.
18. Bailly, C., G. Benoit de Cognac, C. Malvos, J. M. Ningre, and J. M. Sarrailh (1974). Etude de l’influence du couvert naturel et de ses modifications à Madagascar: expérimentations en bassins versants élémentaires. Cahiers Scientifiques du Centre Technique Forestier Tropical 4: 1–114.
19. Barrantes Moreno, G. (2006). Economic valuation of water supply as a key environmental service provided by montane oak forest watershed areas in Costa Rica. In Ecology and Conservation of Neotropical Montane Oak Forests, ed. M. Kappelle, pp. 435–448. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
20. Barthlott, W., W. Lauer, and A. Placke (1996). Global distribution of species diversity in vascular plants: towards a world map of phytodiversity. Erdkunde 50: 317–327.
21. Barthlott, W., V. Schmit-Neuerburg, J. Nieder, and S. Engwald (2001). Diversity and abundance of vascular epiphytes: a comparison of secondary vegetation and primary montane rain forest in the Venezuelan Andes. Plant Ecology 152: 145–156.
22. Barthlott, W., J. Mutke, M. D. Rafiqpoor, G. Kier, and H. Kreft (2005). Global centers of vascular plant diversity. Nova Acta Leopoldina NF 92 (342): 61–83.
23. Beck, E., K. Hartig, and K. Roos (2008a). Forest clearing by slash and burn. In Gradients in a Tropical Mountain Ecosystem of Ecuador, eds. E. Beck, J. Bendix, I. Kottke, F. Makeschin, and R. Mosandl, pp. 387–390. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
24. Beck, E., J. Bendix, I. Kottke, F. Makeschin, and R. Mosandl (eds.) (2008b). Gradients in a Tropical Mountain Ecosystem of Ecuador. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
25. Beck, E., K. Hartig, K. Roos, M. Preuszing, and M. Nebel (2008c). Permanent removal of the forest: construction of roads and power supply lines. In Gradients in a Tropical Mountain Ecosystem of Ecuador, eds. E. Beck, J. Bendix, I. Kottke, F. Makeschin, and R. Mosandl, pp. 377–386. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
26. Beiderwieden, E., V. Wolff, Y. J. Hsia, and O. Klemm (2008). It goes both ways: measurements of simultaneous evapotranspiration and fog droplet deposition at a montane cloud forest. Hydrological Processes 22: 4181–4189.
27. Bellingham, P. J. (1991). Landforms influence patterns of hurricane damage: evidence from Jamaican montane forests. Biotropica 23: 427–433.
28. Bendix, J., R. Rollenbeck, M. Richter, P. Fabian, and P. Emck (2008). Climate. In Gradients in a Tropical Mountain Ecosystem of Ecuador, eds. E. Beck, J. Bendix, I. Kottke, F. Makeschin, and R. Mosandl, pp. 63–74. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
29. Benzing, D. H. (1990). Vascular Epiphytes. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
30. Bigelow, S., and P. Kukle (2000). Ferns. In Monteverde: Ecology and Conservation of a Tropical Cloud Forest, eds. N. M. Nadkarni and N. T. Wheelwright, 89. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
31. Blackie, J. R. (1979a). The water balance of the Kericho catchments. East African Agricultural and Forestry Journal 43: 55–84.
32. Blackie, J. R. (1979b). The water balance of the Kimakia catchments. East African Agricultural and Forestry Journal 43: 155–174.
33. Bleiweiss, R. (1998). Origin of hummingbird faunas. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 65: 77–97.
34. Blocken, B., J. Carmeliet, and J. Poesen (2005). Numerical simulation of the wind-driven rainfall distribution over small-scale topography in space and time. Journal of Hydrology 315: 252–273.
35. Blocken, B., J. Poesen, and J. Carmeliet (2006). Impact of wind on the spatial distribution of rain over micro-scale topography: numerical modeling and experimental verification. Hydrological Processes 20: 345–368.
36. Boy, J., R. Rollenbeck, C. Valarezo, and W. Wilcke (2008). Amazonian biomass burning-derived acid and nutrient deposition in the north Andean montane forest of Ecuador. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 22, GB4011, doi:10.1029/2007GB003158.
37. Brehm, G., R. K. Colwell, and J. Kluge (2007). The role of environment and mid-domain effect on moth species richness along a tropical elevational gradient. Global Ecology and Biogeography 16: 205–219.
38. Brehm, G., J. Homeier, K. Fiedler, et al. (2008). Mountain rain forests in Southern Ecuador as a hotspot of biodiversity: limited knowledge and diverging patterns. In Gradients in a Tropical Mountain Ecosystem of Ecuador, eds. E. Beck, J. Bendix, I. Kottke, F. Makeschin, and R. Mosandl, pp. 15–24. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
39. Brown, A. D., and M. Kappelle. (2001). Introducción a los bosques nublados del Neotrópico: una síntesis regional. In Bosques nublados del Neotrópico, eds. M. Kappelle and A. D. Brown, pp. 25–40. Santo Domingo de Heredia, Costa Rica: Editorial INBio and IUCN.
40. Brown, M. B., I. de la Roca, A. Vallejo, et al. (1996). A Valuation Analysis of the Role of Cloud Forests in Watershed Protection: Sierra de las Minas Biosphere Reserve, Guatemala and Cusuco N.P. Honduras. Philadelphia, PA: RARE Center for Tropical Conservation.
41. Bruijnzeel, L. A. (2001). Hydrology of tropical montane cloud forests: a reassessment. Land Use and Water Resources Research 1: 1–18.
42. Bruijnzeel, L. A. (2004). Hydrological functions of tropical forests: not seeing the soil for the trees? Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 104: 185–228.
43. Bruijnzeel, L. A. (2005). Tropical montane cloud forest: a unique hydrological case. In Forests, Water and People in the Humid Tropics, eds. M. Bonell and L. A. Bruijnzeel, pp. 462–483. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
44. Bruijnzeel, L. A. (ed.) (2006). Hydrological Impacts of Converting Tropical Montane Cloud Forest to Pasture, with Initial Reference to Northern Costa Rica, Final Technical Report for Project R7991, DFID Forestry Research Programme. Amsterdam, the Netherlands: VU University Amsterdam. Also available at www.ambiotek.com/fiesta.
45. Bruijnzeel, L. A., and L. S. Hamilton (2000). Decision Time for Cloud Forests, IHP Humid Tropics Programme Series No. 13. Paris: UNESCO Division of Water Sciences; Gland, Switzerland: WWF and IUCN. Also available at http://sea.unep-wcmc.org/forest/cloudforest/index.cfm.
46. Bruijnzeel, L. A. and J. Proctor (1995). Hydrology and biochemistry of tropical montane cloud forests: what do we really know? In Tropical Montane Cloud Forests, eds. L. S. Hamilton, J. O. Juvik, and F. N. Scatena, pp. 38–78. New York: Springer-Verlag.
47. Bruijnzeel, L. A., and E. J. Veneklaas (1998). Climatic conditions and tropical montane forest productivity: the fog has not lifted yet. Ecology 79: 3–9.
48. Bruijnzeel, L. A., M. J. Waterloo, J. Proctor, A. T. Kuiters, and B. Kotterink (1993). Hydrological observations in montane rain-forests on Gunung-Silam, Sabah, Malaysia, with special reference to the “Massenerhebung” effect. Journal of Ecology 81: 145–167.
49. Brünig, E. F. (1996). Conservation and Management of Tropical Rainforests: An Integrated Approach to Sustainability. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.
50. Bubb, P., I. May, L. Miles, and J. Sayer (2004). Cloud Forest Agenda. Cambridge, UK: UNEP–World Conservation Monitoring Centre. Also available at http://sea.unep-wcmc.org/forest/cloudforest/index.cfm.
51. Caceres, G. (1981). Importancia hidrologica de la intercepción horizontal en un bosque muy humedo premontano en Balalaica, Turrialba, Costa Rica. M.Sc. thesis, University of Costa Rica, Turrialba, Costa Rica.
52. Calvo, J. C. (1986). An evaluation of Thornthwaite's water balance technique in predicting stream runoff in Costa Rica. Hydrological Sciences Journal 31: 51–60.
53. Calvo, J. (2000). Case study: payments for watershed services in Costa Rica. In Forests in Sustainable Mountain Development: A State-of-Knowledge Report for 2000, eds. M. F. Price and N. Butt, pp. 428–429. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.
54. Cassells, D. S., and L. A. Bruijnzeel (2005). Guidelines for controlling vegetation, soil and water impacts of timber harvesting in the humid tropics. In Forests, Water and People in the Humid Tropics, eds. M. Bonell and L. A. Bruijnzeel, pp. 840–851. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
55. Cavelier, J. (1990). Tissue water relations in elfin cloud forest tree species of Serranía de Macuira, Guajira, Colombia. Trees: Structure and Function 4: 155–163.
56. Cavelier, J. (1995). Reforestation with the native tree Alnus acuminata: effects on phytodiversity and species richness in an upper montane rain forest area of Columbia. In Tropical Montane Cloud Forests, eds. L. S. Hamilton, J.O. Juvik, and F.N. Scatena, pp. 125–137. New York: Springer-Verlag.
57. Cavelier, J. (1996). Environmental factors and ecophysiological processes along altitudinal gradients in wet tropical mountains. In Tropical Forest Plant Ecophysiology, eds. S. S. Mulkey, R. L. Chazdon, and A. P. Smith, pp. 399–439. New York: Chapman and Hall.
58. Cavelier, J., and C. A. Mejia (1990). Climatic factors and tree stature in the elfin cloud forest of Serranía de Macuira, Colombia. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 53: 105–123.
59. Cavelier, J., M. Jaramillo, D. Solis, and D. De Leon (1997). Water balance and nutrient inputs in bulk precipitation in tropical montane cloud forest in Panama. Journal of Hydrology 193: 83–96.
60. Cavelier, J., T. M. Aide, C. Santos, A. M. Eusse, and J. M. Dupuy (1998). The savannization of moist forests in Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, Colombia. Journal of Biogeography 25: 901–912.
61. Cavelier, J., E. Tanner, and J. Santamaria (2000). Effect of water, temperature and fertilizers on soil nitrogen net transformations and tree growth in an elfin cloud forest of Colombia. Journal of Tropical Ecology 16: 83–99.
62. Cayuela, L., D. J. Golicher, and J. M. Rey-Benayas (2006). The extent, distribution, and fragmentation of vanishing montane cloud forest in the highlands of Chiapas, Mexico. Biotropica 38: 544–554.
63. Chang, M., and L.A. Flannery (2001). Spherical gages for improving the accuracy of precipitation measurements. Hydrological Processes 15: 643–654.
64. Churchill, S. P., H. Balslev, E. Forero, and J. L. Luteyn (eds.) (1996). Biodiversity and Conservation of Neotropical Montane Forests. New York: New York Botanical Garden.
65. Clark, K. L., N. M. Nadkarni, D. Schaefer, and H. L. Gholz (1998). Atmospheric deposition and net retention of ions by the canopy in a tropicalmontane forest, Monteverde, Costa Rica. Journal of Tropical Ecology 14: 27–45.
66. Clark, L. G. (1995). Diversity and distribution of the Andean woody bamboos (Poaceae: Bambuseae). In Biodiversity and Conservation of Neotropical Montane Forests, eds. S. P. Churchill, H. Balslevee, E. Forero, and J. L. Luteyn, pp. 501–512. New York: New York Botanical Garden.
67. Collins, N. M. (1980). The distribution of soil macrofauna on the west ridge of Gunung (Mount) Mulu, Sarawak. Oecologia 44: 263–275.
68. Collins, N. M., J. M. Anderson, and H. W. Vallack (1984). Studies on the soil invertebrates of lowland and montane rain forest in the Gunung Mulu National Park. Sarawak Museum Journal 30(51): 19–33.
69. Colwell, R. K., G. Brehm, C. L. Cardelús, A. C. Gilman, and J. T. Longino (2008). Global warming, elevational range shifts, and lowland biotic attrition in the wet Tropics. Science 322: 258–261.
70. Cordell, S., G. Goldstein, D. Mueller-Dombois, D. Webb, and P. M. Vitousekn (1998). Physiological and morphological variation in Metrosideros polymorpha, a dominant Hawaiian tree species, along an altitudinal gradient: the role of phenotypic plasticity. Oecologia 113: 188–196.
71. Cordero, R. A. (1999). Ecophysiology of Cecropia schreberiana saplings in two wind regimes in an elfin cloud forest: growth, gas exchange, architecture, and stem biomechanics. Tree Physiology 19: 153–165.
72. Cortes, A. M., M. P. Ramirez-Pinilla, H. A. Suarez, and E. Tovar (2008). Edge effects on richness, abundance and diversity of frogs in Andean cloud forest fragments. South American Journal of Herpetology 3: 213–222.
73. Crutzen, P. J., and E. F. Stoermer (2000). “The Anthropocene.” IGBP Newsletter 41: 17–18.
74. Cubina, A., and T. M. Aide (2001). The effect of distance from forest edge on seed rain and soil seed bank in a tropical pasture. Biotropica 33: 260–267.
75. Cuervo, A. M., P. Salaman, T. Donegan, and J. M. Ochoa (2001). A new species of Piha (Cotingidae: Lipaugus) from the Cordillera Central of Colombia. Ibis 143: 353–368.
76. D’Antonio, C. M. and P. M. Vitousek. (1992). Biological invasions by exotic grasses, the grass/fire cycle, and global change. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 23: 63–87.
77. Daugherty, H. E. (1973). The Montecristo cloud-forest of El Salvador: a chance for protection. Biological Conservation 5: 227–230.
78. Dawson, T. E. (1998). Fog in the California redwood forest: ecosystem inputs and use by plants. Oecologia 117: 476–485.
79. Debouck, D. G., and D. Libreros Ferla. (1995). Neotropical montane forests: a fragile home of genetic resources of wild relatives of new world crops. In Biodiversity and Conservation of Neotropical Montane Forests, eds. S. P. Churchill, H. Balslev, E. Forero, and J. L. Luteyn, pp. 561–577. New York: New York Botanical Garden.
80. Dietz, J., D. Holscher, Ch. Leuschner, and Hendrayanto. (2006). Rainfall partitioning in relation to forest structure in differently managed montane forest stands in Central Sulawesi, Indonesia. Forest Ecology and Management 237: 170–178.
81. Dinerstein, E., D. M. Olson, D. J. Graham, et al. (1995). A Conservation Assessment of the Terrestrial Ecoregions of Latin America and the Caribbean. Washington, DC: The World Bank.
82. Doumenge, C., D. Gilmour, M. Ruiz-Perez, and J. Blockhus (1995). Tropical montane cloud forests: conservation status and management issues. In Tropical Montane Cloud Forests, eds. L. S. Hamilton, J. O. Juvik, and F. N. Scatena, pp. 24–37. New York: Springer-Verlag.
83. Duellman, W. E. (1988). Patterns of species diversity in anuran amphibians in the American tropics. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 75: 79–104.
84. Dunn, R. R. (2000). Bromeliad communities in isolated trees and three successional stages of an Andean cloud forest in Ecuador. Selbyana 21: 137–143.
85. Edwards, K. A. (1979). The water balance of the Mbeya experimental catchments. East African Agricultural and Forestry Journal 43: 231–247.
86. Edwards, P. J. (1982). Studies of mineral cycling in a montane rain forest in New Guinea. V. Rates of cycling in throughfall and litter fall. Journal of Ecology 70: 807–827.
87. Emanuel, K. A. (2005). Increasing destructiveness of tropical cyclones over the past 30 years. Nature 436: 686–688.
88. Etter, A., and W. van Wijngaarden (2000). Patterns of landscape transformation in Colombia, with emphasis on the Andean region. Ambio 29: 432–439.
89. Eugster, W., R. Burkard, F. Holwerda, F. N. Scatena, and L. A. Bruijnzeel (2006). Characteristics of fog and fog-water fluxes in a Puerto Rican elfin cloud forest. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 139: 288–306.
90. Ewel, J. J. (1980). Tropical succession: manifold routes to maturity. Biotropica 12: 2–7.
91. Fallas, J. (2002). Net precipitation patterns in undisturd and fragmented Costa Rican cloud forests. In Proceedings of the 2nd International Colloquium on Hydrology and Water Management, ed. J. S. Gladwell, pp. 389–398. Panamá City, Panamá: CATHALAC, and Paris: IHP–UNESCO.
92. Fetcher, N., R. A. Cordero, and J. Voltzow (2000). Lack of ecotypic differentiation: plant response to elevation, population origin, and wind in the Luquillo Mountains, Puerto Rico. Biotropica 32: 225–234.
93. Fjeldsa, J., and C. Rahbek (1997). Species richness and endemism in South American birds: implications for the design of networks of nature reserves. In Tropical Forest Remnants, eds. W. F. Laurance and R. D. B. Bierregaard, pp. 466–482. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
94. Fleischbein, K., W. Wilcke, C. Valarezo, W. Zech, and K. Knoblich (2006). Water budgets of three small catchments under montane forest in Ecuador: experimental and modelling approach. Hydrological Processes 20: 2491–2507.
95. Flenley, J. R. (1995). Cloud forest, the Massenerhebung effect, and ultraviolet insolation. In Tropical Montane Cloud Forests, eds. L. S. Hamilton, J. O. Juvik, and F. N. Scatena, pp. 150–155. New York: Springer-Verlag.
96. Førland E. J., P. Allerup, B. Dahlstrom, et al. (1996). Manual for Operational Correction of Nordic Precipitation Data. Oslo: Norwegian Meteorological Institute.
97. Foster, P. (2001). The potential negative impacts of global climate change on tropical montane cloud forests. Earth-Science Reviews 55: 73–106.
98. Frahm, J. P., and S. R. Gradstein (1991). An altitudinal zonation of tropical rain forests using bryophytes. Journal of Biogeography 18: 669–676.
99. Frumau, K. F. A., L. A. Bruijnzeel, and C. Tobon (2006a). Hydrological Measurement Protocol for Montane Cloud Forests, Appendix 2 to Final Technical Report for Project R7991, DFID Forestry Research Programme. Amsterdam, the Netherlands: VU University Amsterdam. Also available at www.ambiotek.com/fiesta.
100. Frumau, K. F. A., L. A. Bruijnzeel, and C. Tobon (2006b). Measurement of precipitation in montane tropical catchments: comparative performance of conventional, spherical and “potential” rain gages. In Forest and Water in a Changing Environment, eds. S. R. Liu, G. Sun, and P. S. Sun, pp. 104–108. Vienna: IUFRO, and Beijing: Chinese Academy of Forestry.
101. Gabriel, G., and L. Jauze (2008). Fog water interception by Sophora denudata trees in a Réunion upper montane forest, Indian Ocean. Atmospheric Research 87: 338–351.
102. Garcia-Garcia, F., and V. Zarraluqui (2008). A fog climatology for Mexico. Die Erde 139: 45–60.
103. Garcia-Santos, G. (2007). An ecohydrological and soils study in a montane cloud forest in the National Park of Garajonay, La Gomera (Canary Islands, Spain). Ph.D. thesis, VU University Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands. Also available at www.falw.vu.nl/nl/onderzoek/earth-sciences/geo-environmental-science-and-hydrology/hydrology-dissertations/index.asp.
104. Garriguata, M. R., and P. Balvanera. (2009). Tropical forest service flows. Forest Ecology and Management, doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2009.06.025.
105. Gentry, A. H. (1982). Neotropical floristic diversity: phytogeographical connections between Central and South America, Pleistocene climatic fluctuations, or an accident of the Andean orogeny? Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 69: 557–593.
106. Gentry, A. H. (1988). Changes in plant community diversity and floristic composition on environmental and geographical gradients. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 75: 1–34.
107. Gentry, A. H. (1992). Diversity and floristic composition of Andean forests of Peru and adjacent countries: implications for their conservation. In Biogeografía, ecología y conservación del bosque montano en el Perú, Memorias Museo de Historia Natural No. 21, eds. K. R. Young and N. Valencia, pp. 11–29. Lima, Perú: UNMSM.
108. Gentry, A. H. (1995). Patterns of diversity and floristic composition in neotropical montane forests. In Biodiversity and Conservation of Neotropical Montane Forests, eds. S. P. Churchill, H. Balslev, E. Forero, and J. L. Luteyn, pp. 103–126. New York: New York Botanical Garden.
109. Gerold, G., M. Schawe, and K. Bach (2008). Hydrometeorologic, pedologic and vegetation patterns along an elevational transect in the montane forest of the Bolivian Yungas. Die Erde 139: 141–168.
110. Giambelluca, T. W., and D. A. Nullet (1992). Evaporation at high elevations in Hawaii. Journal of Hydrology 136: 219–235.
111. Giambelluca, T. W., R. E. Martin, G. P. Asner, et al. (2009). Evapotranspiration and energy balance of native wet montane cloud forest in Hawai’i. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 149: 230–243.
112. Gill, A. M. (1969). The ecology of an elfin forest in Puerto Rico. VI. Aerial roots. Journal of the Arnold Arboretum 50: 197–209.
113. Gomes, L. G. L., V. Oostra, V. Nijman, A. M. Cleef, and M. Kappelle (2008). Tolerance of frugivorous birds to habitat disturbance in a tropical cloud forest. Biological Conservation 141: 860–871.
114. Gomez-Cardenas, M. (2009). Transpiration by contrasting vegetation cover types in the montane cloud forest belt of eastern Mexico. Ph.D. thesis, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA.
115. Gomez-Laurito, J., (1991). Ticodendraceae: a new family of flowering plants. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 78 87–88.
116. Gomez-Peralta, D., S. F. Oberbauer, M. E. McClain, and T. E. Philippi (2008). Rainfall and cloud-water interception in tropicalmontane forests in the eastern Andes of Central Peru. Forest Ecology and Management 255: 1315–1325.
117. Gonggrijp, L. (1941). Evaporation from montane forest in West Java at an altitude of 1750–2000 m a.s.l. Tectona 34: 437–447 (in Dutch, with a summary in English).
118. Gonzalez, G., E. Garcia, V. Cruz, et al. (2007). Earthworm communities along an elevation gradient in Northeastern Puerto Rico. European Journal of Soil Biology 43: S24–S32.
119. Gonzalez-Espinosa M., J. M. Rey-Benayas, and N. Ramirez-Marcial (eds.) (2008). Restauración de bosques en América Latina. México City, Mexico: Mundi-Prensa.
120. Gradstein, S. R. (2008). Epiphytes of tropical montane forests: impact of deforestation and climate change. In The Tropical Mountain Forest: Patterns and Processes in a Biodiversity Hotspot, eds. S. R. Gradstein, J. Homeier, and D. Gansert, pp. 51–65. Göttingen, Germany: Göttingen Centre for Biodiversity and Ecology.
121. Gradstein, S. R., and T. Pocs. (1989). Bryophytes. In Tropical Rain Forest Ecosystems, eds. H. Lieth and M. J. A. Werger, pp. 311–325. Amsterdam, the Netherlands: Elsevier.
122. Gradstein, S. R., S. P. Churchill, and N. Salazar Allen (2001). Guide to the Bryophytes of Tropical America, Memoirs of the New York Botanical Garden No. 86. New York: New York Botanical Garden.
123. Grau, H. R., T. M. Aide, J. K. Zimmerman, et al. (2003). The ecological consequences of socioeconomic and land-use changes in post-agriculture Puerto Rico. BioScience 53: 1159–1168.
124. Grau, H. R., M. Perez-Ceballos, S. Martinuzzi, X. Encarnación, and T. M. Aide (2008). Cambios socioeconómicos y regeneración del bosque en República Dominicana. In Restauración ecológica en América Latina, eds. M. Gonzalez-Espinosa, J. M. Rey-Benayas, and N. Ramírez-Marcial, pp. 211–227. México City, Mexico: Mundi-Prensa.
125. Grenyer, R., C. D. L. Orme, S. F. Jackson, et al. (2006). Global distribution and conservation of rare and threatened vertebrates. Nature 444: 93–96.
126. Groombridge, B. (ed.) (1992). Global Biodiversity: Status of the Earth's Living Resources. London: Chapman and Hall.
127. Grubb, P. J. (1977). Control of forest growth and distribution on wet tropical mountains: with special reference to mineral nutrition. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 8: 83–107.
128. Guariguata, M. R., G. P. Sáenz, and L. Pedroni (2006). Regeneration dynamics in a Costa Rican montane oak forest after reduced-impact logging. In Ecology and Conservation of Neotropical Montane Oak Forests, ed. M. Kappelle, pp. 235–244. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
129. Gunter, S., M. Weber, R. Erreis, and N. Aguirre (2006). Influence of distance to forest edges on natural regeneration of abandoned pastures: a case study in the tropical montane rain forest of Southern Ecuador. European Journal of Forest Research, doi:10.1007/s10342–006–0156–0.
130. Gunter, S., O. Cabrera, M. Weber, et al. (2008). Natural forest management in Neotropical mountain rain forests: an ecological experiment. In Gradients in a Tropical Mountain Ecosystem of Ecuador, eds. E. Beck, E. J. Bendix, I. Kottke, F.Makeschin, and R.Mosandl, pp. 363–375. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
131. Gunter, S., P. Gonzalez, G. Alvarez, et al. (2009). Determinants of successful regeneration of abandoned pastures in the Andes: soil conditions and vegetation cover. Forest Ecology and Management 258: 81–91.
132. Guswa, A. J., A. L. Rhodes, and S. E. Newell (2007). Importance of orographic precipitation to the water resources of Monteverde, Costa Rica. Advances in Water Resources 30: 2098–2112.
133. Haber, W. (1991). Lista provisional de las plantas de Monteverde, Costa Rica. Brenesia 34: 63–120.
134. Haber, W. (2000). Plants and vegetation. In Monteverde: Ecology and Conservation of a Tropical Cloud Forest, eds. N. M. Nadkarni and N. T. Wheelwright, pp. 39–70. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
135. Hafkenscheid, R. L. L. J. (2000). Hydrology and biogeochemistry of tropical montane rain forests of contrasting stature in the Blue Mountains, Jamaica. Ph.D. thesis, VU University Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands. Also available at http://dare.ubvu.vu.nl/bitstream/1871/12734/1/tekst.pdf.
136. Hafkenscheid, R. L. L. J., L. A. Bruijnzeel, R. A. M. de Jeu, and N. J. Bink (2002). Water budgets of two upper montane rain forests of contrasting stature in the Blue Mountains, Jamaica. In Proceedings of the 2 International Colloquium on Hydrology and Water Management in the Humid Tropics, ed. J. S. Gladwell, pp. 399–424. Panamá City, Panamá: CATHALAC, and Paris: IHP–UNESCO.
137. Hamilton, L. S. (1995). A Campaign for Cloud Forests. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN.
138. Hamilton, L. S. (2005). Red flags of warning in land clearing. In Forests, Water and People in the Humid Tropics, eds. M. Bonell and L. A. Bruijnzeel, pp. 866–880. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
139. Hamilton, L. S., J. O. Juvik, and F. N. Scatena (eds.) (1995a). Tropical Montane Cloud Forests. New York: Springer-Verlag.
140. Hamilton, L. S., J. O. Juvik, and F. N. Scatena (1995b). The Puerto Rico tropical montane cloud forest symposium: introduction and workshop synthesis. In Tropical Montane Cloud Forests, eds. L. S. Hamilton, J. O. Juvik, and F. N. Scatena, pp. 1–16. New York: Springer-Verlag.
141. Harr, R. D. (1982). Fog-drip in the Bull Run municipal watershed, Oregon. Water Resources Bulletin 18: 785–789.
142. Hartig, K., and E. Beck (2003). The bracken fern (Pteridium arachnoideum Kaulf.) dilemma in the Andes of Southern Ecuador. Ecotropica 9: 3–13.
143. Hattenschwiler, S., A. E. Hagerman, and P. M. Vitousek (2003). Polyphenols in litter from tropical montane forests across a wide range in soil fertility. Biogeochemistry 64: 129–148.
144. Heaney, L. R. (2001). Small mammal diversity along elevational gradients in the Philippines: an assessment of patterns and hypotheses. Global Ecology and Biogeography 10: 15–39.
145. Hemp, A. (2002). Ecology of the pteridophytes on the southern slopes of Mt. Kilimanjaro. I. Altitudinal distribution. Plant Ecology 159: 211–239.
146. Hemp, A. (2005a). Continuum or zonation? Altitudinal gradients in the forests on Mt. Kilimanjaro. Plant Ecology 184: 27–42.
147. Hemp, A. (2005b). Climate change driven forest fires marginalize the impact of ice cap wasting on Kilimanjaro. Global Change Biology 11: 1013–1023.
148. Herrera, B., and A. Chaverri (2006). Criteria and indicators for sustainable management of Central American montane oak forests. In Ecology and Conservation of Neotropical Montane Oak Forests, ed. M. Kappelle, pp. 421–434. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
149. Herrmann, R. (1971). Die zeitliche Anderung der Wasserbindung im Boden unter verschiedenen Vegetationsformationen der Höhenstufen eines tropischen Hochgebirges (Sierra Nevada de Sta. Marta, Kolumbien). Erdkunde 25: 90–102.
150. Herwitz, S. (1991). Aboveground adventitious roots and stemflow chemistry of Ceratopetalum virchowii in an Australian montane tropical rain forest. Biotropica 23: 210–218.
151. Herwitz, S., and R. E. Slye (1992). Spatial variation in the interception of inclined rainfall by a tropical rainforest canopy. Selbyana 13: 62–71.
152. Hetsch, W., and H. Hoheisel (1976). Standorts-und Vegetationsgliederung in einem tropischen Nebelwald. Allgemeine Forst-und Jagdzeitung 147: 200–207.
153. Hildebrandt, A., and E. A. B. Eltahir (2006). Forest on the edge: seasonal cloud forest in Oman creates its own niche. Geophysical Research Letters 33, L11401, doi:10.1029/2006GL026022.
154. Hobbs, R. J., and D. A. Norton (1996). Towards a conceptual framework for restoration ecology. Restoration Ecology 4: 93–110.
155. Holder, C. D. (2003). Fog precipitation in the Sierra de las Minas Biosphere Reserve, Guatemala. Hydrological Processes 17: 2001–2010.
156. Holder, C. D. (2004). Rainfall interception and fog precipitation in a tropical montane cloud forest of Guatemala. Forest Ecology and Management 190: 373–384.
157. Holl, K. D., and M. Kappelle (1999). Tropical forest recovery and restoration. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 14: 378–379.
158. Holl, K. D., M. E. Loik, E. H. V. Lin, and I. A. Samuels (2000). Tropical montane forest restoration in Costa Rica: overcoming barriers to dispersal and establishment. Restoration Ecology 8: 339–349.
159. Holl, K. D., E. E. Crone, and C. B. Schultz (2003). Landscape restoration: moving from generalities to methodologies. BioScience 53: 491–502.
160. Holscher, D., L. Köhler, A. I. J. M. Van Dijk, and L. A. Bruijnzeel (2004). The importance of epiphytes to total rainfall interception by a tropical montane rain forest in Costa Rica. Journal of Hydrology 292: 308–322.
161. Holwerda, F. (2005). Water and energy budgets of rain forests along an elevation gradient under maritime tropical conditions. Ph.D. thesis, VU University Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands. Also available at www.falw.vu.nl/nl/onderzoek/earth-sciences/geo-environmental-science-andhydrology/hydrology-dissertations/index.asp.
162. Holwerda, F., R. Burkard, W. E. Eugster, et al. (2006). Estimating fog deposition at a Puerto Rican elfin cloud forest site: comparison of the water budget and eddy covariance methods. Hydrological Processes 20: 2669–2692.
163. Holwerda, F., Barradas, V. L., Cervantes, J., and Bruijnzeel, L. A. (2007). Balances hídricos y de energía de un cafetal de sombra en el centro de Veracruz, México. In Reporte técnico final del proyecto INE/A1–064/2007. Xalapa, Veracruz, México: Instituto de Ecología, and Amsterdam, the Netherlands: VU University Amsterdam.
164. Holwerda, F., L. A. Bruijnzeel, L. E. Muñoz, M. Equihua, and H. Asbjornsen (2010). Rainfall and cloud water interception in mature and secondary lower montane cloud forests of central Veracruz, Mexico. Journal of Hydrology 384: 84–96.
165. Holz, I., and S. R. Gradstein (2005a). Phytogeography of the bryophyte floras of oak forests and paramo of the Cordillera de Talamanca, Costa Rica. Journal of Biogeography 32: 1591–1609.
166. Holz, I., and S. R. Gradstein (2005b). Cryptogamic epiphytes in primary and recovering upper montane oak forests of Costa Rica: species richness, community composition and ecology. Plant Ecology 178: 89–109.
167. Holz, I., S. R. Gradstein, J. Heinrichs, and M. Kappelle (2002). Bryophyte diversity, microhabitat differentiation and distribution of life forms in Costa Rican upper montane Quercus forest. The Bryologist 105: 334–348.
168. Homeier, J., F. A. Werner, S. R. Gradstein, S. -W. Breckle, and M. Richter (2008). Potential vegetation and floristic composition of Andean forests in South Ecuador, with a focus on the RBSF. In Gradients in a Tropical Mountain Ecosystem of Ecuador, eds. E. Beck, J. Bendix, I. Kottke, F. Makeschin, and R. Mosandl, pp. 425–431. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
169. Honey, M. (2008). Ecotourism and Sustainable Development: Who Owns Paradise? Washington, DC: Island Press.
170. Hutley, L. B., D. Doley, D. Yates, and A. Boonsaner (1997). Water balance of an Australian subtropical rainforest at altitude: the ecological and physiological significance of intercepted cloud and fog. Australian Journal of Botany 45: 311–329.
171. Hyndman, D. C., and J. I. Menzies (1990). Rain forests of the Ok Tedi headwaters, New Guinea: an ecological analysis. Journal of Biogeography 17: 241–273.
172. Ingwersen, J. B. (1985). Fog drip, water yield and timber harvesting in the Bull Run Municipal Watershed, Oregon. Water Resources Bulletin 21: 469–473.
173. Islebe, G. A., and H. Hooghiemstra (2006). Effects of the Younger Dryas cooling event on late Quaternary montane oak forest in Costa Rica. In Ecology and Conservation of Neotropical Montane Oak Forests, ed. M. Kappelle, pp. 29–37. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
174. ITTO (1992). Criteria for the Measurement of Sustainable Tropical Forest Management, ITTO Policy Development Series No. 2. Yokohama, Japan: International Timber Trade Organization.
175. IUCN, Conservation International, and NatureServe (2008a). An Analysis of Amphibians on the 2008 IUCN Red List. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN. Also available at www.iucnredlist.org/amphibians.
176. IUCN, Conservation International, Arizona State University, Texas A&M University, University of Rome, University of Virginia, and Zoological Society London. (2008b). An Analysis of Mammals on the 2008 IUCN Red List. Available at www.iucnredlist.org/mammals.
177. IUCN (2009). Fighting for Forest Frogs, IUCN Species Survival Commission, Amphibian Specialist Group. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN. Also available at www.iucn.org/about/work/programmes/species/red_list/?3061/Fighting-for-forest-frogs.
178. Jin, Y., W. B. Rossow, and D. P. Wylie (1996). Comparison of the climatologies of high-level clouds from HIRS and ISCCP. Journal of Climate 9: 2850–2879.
179. Juen, I., C. Georges, and G. Kaser (2007). Modelling observed and future runoff from a glacierized tropical catchment (Cordillera Blanca, Perú). Global and Planetary Change 59: 37–48.
180. Juvik, J. O., and P. C. Ekern (1978). A Climatology of Mountain Fog on Mauna Loa, Hawaii Island, Technical Report No. 118. Honolulu, HI: Water Resources Research Center, University of Hawai’i.
181. Juvik, J. O., and D. Nullet (1995a). Comments on “a proposed standard fog collector for use in high elevation regions.” Journal of Applied Meteorology 34: 2108–2110.
182. Juvik, J. O., and D. Nullet (1995b). Relationships between rainfall, cloudwater interception and canopy throughfall in a Hawaiian montane forest. In Tropical Montane Cloud Forests, eds. L. S. Hamilton, J. O. Juvik, and F. N. Scatena, pp. 165–182. New York: Springer-Verlag.
183. Kapos, V., J. Rhind, M. Edwards, and M. F. Price (2000). Developing a map of the world's mountain forests. In Forests in Sustainable Mountain Development: A State-of-Knowledge Report for 2000, eds. M. F. Price and N. Butt, pp. 4–9. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. Also available at www.unep-wcmc.org/habitats/mountains/homepage. htm.
184. Kappelle, M. (2001). Bosques nublados de Costa Rica. In Bosques nublados del Neotrópico, eds. M. Kappelle and A. D. Brown, pp. 301–370. Santo Domingo de Heredia, Costa Rica: Editorial INBio and IUCN.
185. Kappelle, M. (2004). Tropical montane forests. In Encyclopedia of Forest Sciences, Vol. 4, eds. J. Burley, J. Evans, and J. A. Youngquist, pp. 1782– 1793. Oxford, UK: Elsevier.
186. Kappelle, M. (2006). Neotropical montane oak forests: overview and outlook. In Ecology and Conservation of Neotropical Montane Oak Forests, ed. M. Kappelle, pp. 449–467. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
187. Kappelle, M., and A. D. Brown (eds.) (2001). Bosques nublados del Neotró-pico. Santo Domingo de Heredia, Costa Rica: Editorial INBio and IUCN.
188. Kappelle, M., and G. J. van Uffelen (2006). Altitudinal zonation of montane oak forests along climate and soil gradients in Costa Rica. In Ecology and Conservation of Neotropical Montane Oak Forests, ed. M. Kappelle, pp. 39–54. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
189. Kappelle, M., A. M. Cleef, and A. Chaverri (1992). Phytogeography of Talamanca montane Quercus forests, Costa Rica. Journal of Biogeography 19: 299–315.
190. Kappelle, M., H. P. van Velzen, and W. H. Wijtzes (1994). Plant communities of montane secondary vegetation in the Cordillera de Talamanca, Costa Rica. Phytocoenologia 22: 449–484.
191. Kappelle, M., P. A. F. Kennis, and R. A. J. de Vries (1995a). Changes in diversity along a successional gradient in a Costa Rican upper montane Quercus forest. Biodiversity and Conservation 4: 10–34.
192. Kappelle, M., J. G. van Uffelen, and A. M. Cleef (1995b). Altitudinal zonation of montane Quercus forests along two transects in the Chirripó National Park, Costa Rica. Vegetatio (Plant Ecology) 119: 119–153.
193. Kappelle, M., T. Geuze, M. Leal, and A. M. Cleef (1996). Successional age and forest structure in a Costa Rican upper montane Quercus forest. Journal of Tropical Ecology 12: 681–698.
194. Kappelle, M., G. Avertin, M. E. Juarez, and N. Zamora. (2000). Useful plants within a campesino community in a Costa Rican montane cloud forest. Mountain Research and Development 20: 162–171.
195. Kaser, G., C. Georges, I. Juen, and T. Moelg (2005). Low latitude glaciers: unique global climate indicators and essential contributors to regional fresh water supply – a conceptual approach. In Global Change and Mountain Regions: A State of Knowledge Overview, eds. U. Huber, H. K. M. Bugmann, and M. A. Reasoner, pp. 185–196. New York: Kluwer.
196. Kessler, M. (2002). The elevational gradient of Andean plant endemism: varying influences of taxon-specific traits and topography at different taxonomic levels. Journal of Biogeography 29: 1159–1166.
197. Kessler, M., and J. Kluge (2008). Diversity and endemism in tropical montane forests: from patterns to processes. In The Tropical Mountain Forest: Patterns and Processes in a Biodiversity Hotspot, eds. S.R. Gradstein, J. Homeier, and D. Gansert, pp. 35–50. Göttingen, Germany: Göttingen Centre for Biodiversity and Ecology.
198. Kessler, M., and M. Lehnert (2009). Do ridge habitats contribute to pteridophyte diversity in tropical montane forests? A case study from southeastern Ecuador. Journal of Plant Research 122: 421–428.
199. Kier, G., and W. Barthlott (2001). Measuring and mapping endemism and species richness: a new methodological approach and its application on the flora of Africa. Biodiversity and Conservation 10: 1513–1529.
200. Kier, G., J. Mutke, E. Dinerstein, et al. (2005). Global patterns of plant diversity and floristic knowledge. Journal of Biogeography 32: 1–10.
201. Kikkawa, J., and W. T. Williams (1971). Altitudinal distribution of land birds in New Guinea. Search 2: 64–65.
202. Kitayama, K. (1995). Biophysical conditions of the montane cloud forests of Mount Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia. In Tropical Montane Cloud Forests, eds. L. S. Hamilton, J. O. Juvik, and F. N. Scatena, pp. 183–197. New York: Springer-Verlag.
203. Kitayama, K., and D. Muller-Dombois (1994). An altitudinal transect analysis of the windward vegetation on Haleakala, a Hawaiian island mountain. I. Climate and soils. Phytocoenologia 24: 111–133.
204. Kleidon, A., and H. A. Mooney (2008). A global distribution of biodiversity inferred from climatic constraints: results from a process-based modelling study. Global Change Biology 6: 507–523.
205. Kohler, L., C. Tobon, K. F. A. Frumau, and L. A. Bruijnzeel (2007). Biomass and water storage dynamics of epiphytes in old-growth and secondary montane cloud forest stands in Costa Rica. Plant Ecology 193: 171–184.
206. Korner, C., and E. M. Spehn (eds.) (2002). Mountain Biodiversity: A Global Assessment. Boca Raton, FL: Parthenon.
207. Krabbe, N., D. J. Agro, N. H. Rice, et al. (1999). A new species of Antpitta (Formicariidae: Grallaria) from the southern Ecuadorian Andes. The Auk 116: 882–890.
208. Kreft, H., and W. Jetz (2007). Global patterns and determinants of vascular plant diversity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 104: 5925–5930.
209. Kumagai, T., T. M. Saitoh, Y. Sato, et al. (2005). Annual water balance and seasonality of evapotranspiration in a Bornean tropical rainforest. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 128: 81–92.
210. Kumaran, S. (2008). Hydrometeorology of Tropical montane rain forests of Gunung Brinchang, Pahang Darul Makmur, Malaysia. Ph.D. thesis, University of Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia.
211. Kuppers, M., T. Motzer, D. Schmitt, et al. (2008). Stand structure, transpiration responses in trees and vines, and stand transpiration of different forest types within the mountain rainforest. In Gradients in a Tropical Mountain Ecosystem of Ecuador, eds. E. Beck, J. Bendix, I. Kottke, F. Makeschin, and R. Mosandl, pp. 243–258. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
212. LaBastille, A., and D. J. Pool (1978). On the need for a sytem of cloud-forest parks in Middle America and the Caribbean. Environmental Conservation 5: 183–190.
213. Lawton, R. O. (1982). Wind stress and elfin stature in a montane rain forest tree: an adaptive explanation. American Journal of Botany 69: 1224–1230.
214. Lawton, R. O., and V. Dryer (1980). The vegetation of the Monteverde Cloud Forest Preserve. Brenesia 18: 101–116.
215. Lawton, R. O., U. S. Nair, R. A. Pielke Sr., and R. M. Welch (2001). Climatic impact of tropical lowland deforestation on nearby montane cloud forests. Science 294: 584–587.
216. Leakey, R. J. G., and J. Proctor (1987). Invertebrates in the litter and soil at a rnge of altitudes on Gunng Silam, a small ultrabasic mountain in Sabah. Journal of Tropical Ecology 3: 119–129.
217. Leo, M. (1995). The importance of tropical montane cloud forests for preserving vertebrate endemism in Peru: the Río Abiseo National Park as a case study. In Tropical Montane Cloud Forests, eds. L. S. Hamilton, J. O. Juvik, and F. N. Scatena, pp. 198–211. New York: Springer-Verlag.
218. Le Tellier, V., A. Carrasco, and N. Asquith (2009). Attempts to determine effects of forest cover on streamflow by hydrological measurements in Los Negros, Bolivia. Forest Ecology and Management, doi:10.1016/j. foreco.2009.04.031.
219. Leuschner, Ch., G. Moser, C. Bertsch, M. Roderstein, and D. Hertel (2007). Large altitudinal increase in tree root/shoot ratio in tropical mountain forests of Ecuador. Basic and Applied Ecology 8: 219–230.
220. Lieberman, D., M. Lieberman, R. Peralta, and G. S. Hartshorn (1996). Tropical forest structure and composition on a large-scale altitudinal gradient in Costa Rica. Journal of Ecology 84: 137–152.
221. Lindberg, K., and D. E. Hawkins (eds.) (1993). Ecotourism: A Guide for Planners and Managers. North Bennington, VT: The Ecotourism Society.
222. Lips, K. R., D. E. Green, and R. Pappendick (2003). Chytridiomycosis in wild frogs from southern Costa Rica. Journal of Herpetology 37: 215–218.
223. Liu, W., J. E. D. Fox, and Z. Xu (2002). Nutrient fluxes in bulk precipitation, throughfall and stemflow in montane subtropical moist forest on Ailao Mountain in Yunnan, south-west China. Journal of Tropical Ecology 18: 527–541.
224. Liu, W. J., W. Y. Liu, P. J. Li, et al. (2007). Using stable isotopes to determine sources of fog drip in a tropical seasonal rain forest of Xishuangbanna, SW China. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 143: 80–91.
225. Long, A. (1995). The importance of tropical montane cloud forests for endemic and threatened birds. In Tropical Montane Cloud Forests, eds. L. S. Hamilton, J. O. Juvik, and F. N. Scatena, pp. 79–106. New York: Springer-Verlag.
226. Lugo, A. E., and F. N. Scatena (1992). Epiphytes and climate change in the Caribbean: a proposal. Selbyana 13: 123–130.
227. Lundgren, L., and B. Lundgren (1979). Rainfall, interception and evaporation in the Mazumbai forest reserve, West Usambara Mts., Tanzania and their importance in the assessment of land potential. Geografiska Annaler 61: 157–178.
228. Luping, M., N. Chin, and E. R. Dingley (eds.) (1978). Kinabalu, Summit of Borneo. Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia: The Sabah Society.
229. Luteyn, J. L. (1989). Speciation and diversity of Ericaceae in neotropical montane vegetation. In Tropical Forests: Botanical Dynamics, Speciation and Diversity, eds. L. B. Holm-Nielsen, I. Nielsen, and H. Balslev, pp. 297–310. London: Academic Press.
230. Lyford, W.H. (1969). The ecology of an elfin forest in PuertoRico. VII. Soil, root, and earthworm relationships. Journal of the Arnold Arboretum 50: 210–224.
231. Mamanteo, B. P., and V. P. Veracion (1985). Measurements of fog drip, throughfall and stemflow in the mossy and Benguet pine (Pinus kesiya Royle ex Gordon) forests in the upper Agno river basin. Sylvatrop (Philippines Forestry Research Journal) 10: 271–282.
232. Mangen, J. M. (1993). Ecology and vegetation of Mt Trikora, New Guinea (Irian Jaya/Indonesia). Travaux Scientifiques du Musée National d’Histoire Naturelle de Luxembourg 21: 1–216.
233. Mann, M. E., K. A. Emanuel, G. L. Holland, and P. J. Webster (2007). Atlantic tropical cyclones revisited. Eos, Transactions of the American Geophysical Union 88(36): 349–350.
234. Marrs, R., J. Proctor, A. Heaney, and M. Mountford (1988). Changes in soil nitrogen mineralization and nitrification along an altitudinal transect in tropical rain forest in Costa Rica. Journal of Ecology 76: 466–482.
235. Martinez, A., M. D. Mahecha, G. Lischeid, and E. Beck (2008). Succession stages of vegetation regeneration: secondary tropical mountain forests. In Gradients in a Tropical Mountain Ecosystem of Ecuador, eds. E. Beck, J. Bendix, I. Kottke, F. Makeschin, and R. Mosandl, pp. 425–431. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
236. McBride, J., J. Kepert, J. Chan, et al. (2006). Statement on Tropical Cyclones and Climate Change, WMO/CAS Tropical Meteorological Research Program, Steering Committee for Project TC-2. Available at www.bom.gov. au/info/CAS-statement.pdf.
237. McCain, C. M. (2005). Elevational gradients in diversity of small mammals. Ecology 86: 366–372.
238. McJannet, D., J. S. Wallace, and P. Reddell (2007a). Precipitation interception in Australian tropical rainforests. I. Measurement of stemflow, throughfall and cloud interception. Hydrological Processes 21: 1692–1702.
239. McJannet, D., J. Wallace, and P. Reddell (2007b). Precipitation interception in Australian tropical rainforests. II. Altitudinal gradients of cloud interception, stemflow, throughfall and interception. Hydrological Processes 21: 1703–1718.
240. McJannet, D. L., P. G. Fitch, M. G. Disher, and J. S. Wallace (2007c). Measurements of transpiration in four tropical rainforest types of north Queensland, Australia. Hydrological Processes 21: 3549–3564.
241. McJannet, D. L., J. S. Wallace, P. Fitch, M. Disher, and P. Reddell (2007d). Water budgets of tropical rainforests in northern Queensland, Australia. Hydrological Processes 21: 3473–3483.
242. McKinnon, K., G. Hatta, H. Halim, and A. Mangalik (1996). The Ecology of Kalimantan: Indonesian Borneo, The Ecology of Indonesia Series, Vol. III. Hong Kong, China: Periplus Editions.
243. McNeely, J. A., and S. J. Scherr (2003). Ecoagriculture: Strategies to Feed the World and Save Wild Biodiversity. Washington, DC: Island Press.
244. Mosandl, R., and S. Günter (2008). Sustainable management of tropical mountain forests in Ecuador. In The Tropical Mountain Forest: Patterns and Processes in a Biodiversity Hotspot, eds. S. R. Gradstein, J. Homeier, and D. Gansert, pp. 177–193. Göttingen, Germany: Göttingen Centre for Biodiversity and Ecology.
245. Mosandl, R., S. Günter, B. Stimm, and M. Weber (2008). Ecuador suffers the highest deforestation rate in South America. In Gradients in a Tropical Mountain Ecosystem of Ecuador, eds. E. Beck, J. Bendix, I. Kottke, F. Makeschin, and R. Mosandl, pp. 37–40. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
246. Moser, G., D. Hertel, and Ch. Leuschner (2007). Altitudinal change in LAI and stand leaf biomass in tropical montane forests: a transect study in Ecuador and a pan-tropical meta-analysis. Ecosystems 10: 924–935.
247. Moser, G., M. Röderstein, N. Soethe, D. Hertel, and Ch. Leuschner (2008). Altitudinal changes in stand structure and biomass allocation of tropical mountain forest in relation to microclimate and soil chemistry. In Gradients in a Tropical Mountain Ecosystem of Ecuador, eds. E. Beck, J. Bendix, I. Kottke, F.Makeschin, and R.Mosandl, pp. 229–242. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
248. Motzer, T. (2005). Micrometeorological aspects of a tropical mountain forest. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 135: 230–240.
249. Mulligan, M. (2006a). Global Gridded 1km TRMM Rainfall Climatology and Derivatives, Version 1.0. Database available at www.ambiotek.com/1kmrainfall.
250. Mulligan, M. (2006b). MODIS MOD35 Pan-Tropical Cloud Climatology, Version 1, September 2006. Available at www.ambiotek.com/clouds.
251. Mulligan, M., and S. M. Burke (2005a). Global Cloud Forests and Environmental Change in a Hydrological Context, Final Report of DFID FRP Project ZF0216. Available at www.ambiotek.com/cloud forests.
252. Mulligan, M., and S. M. Burke (2005b). FIESTA: Fog Interception for the Enhancement of Streamflow in Tropical Areas, Appendix 4a to Final Technical Report of DFID-FRP Project no. R7991. Available at www. ambiotek.com/fiesta.
253. Muñoz-Piña, C., A. Guevara, J. M. Torres, and J. Braña (2008). Paying for the hydrological services of Mexico's forests: analysis, negotiations and results. Ecological Economics 65: 725–736.
254. Muñoz-Villers, L. E., (2008). Efecto del cambio en el uso de suelo sobre la dinámica hidrológica y calidad de agua en el trópico húmedo del centro de Veracruz, México. Ph.D. thesis, Autonomous University of Mexico, Mexico City.
255. Mutke, J., and W. Barthlott (2005). Patterns of vascular plant diversity at continental to global scales. Biologiske Skrifter 55: 521–537.
256. Myers, N., R. Mittermeier, C. G. Mittermeier, G. A. B. Da Fonseca, and J. Kent. (2000). Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities. Nature 403: 853–858.
257. Nadkarni, N. M. (1984). Epiphyte biomass and nutrient capital of a neotropical elfin forest. Biotropica 16: 249–256.
258. Nadkarni, N. M., and R. Solano (2002). Potential effects of climate change on canopy communities in a tropical cloud forest: an experimental approach. Oecologia 131: 580–584.
259. Nadkarni, N., T. J. Matelson, and W. A. Haber (1995). Structural characteristics and floristic composition of a neotropical cloud forest, Monteverde, Costa Rica. Journal of Tropical Ecology 11: 481–494.
260. Nair, U. S., S. Asefi, R. M. Welch, et al. (2008). Biogeography of tropical montane cloud forests. II. Mapping of orographic cloud immersion. Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology 47: 2183–2197.
261. Nespor, V., and B. Sevruk (1999). Estimation of wind-induced error of rainfall gauge measurements using a numerical simulation. Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology 16: 450–464.
262. New, M., M. Hulme, and P. D. Jones (2000). Global Monthly Climatology for the Twentieth Century. Oak Ridge, TN: Oak Ridge National Laboratory Distributed Active Archive Center. Data-set available at www.daac.ornl. gov.
263. Newmark, W. D., and R. B. M. Senzota (2003). Power to detect trends in ecological indicators in the East Usambara Mountains, Tanzania. African Journal of Ecology 41: 294–298.
264. Nieder J., J. Prosperi, and G. Michaloud (2001). Epiphytes and their contribution to canopy diversity. Plant Ecology 153: 51–63.
265. Northup, R., Z. Yu, R. A. Dahlgren, and K. A. Vogt (1995). Polyphenol control of nitrogen release from pine litter. Nature 377: 227–229.
266. Northup, R., R. A. Dahlgren, and J. G. McColl (1998). Polyphenols as regulators of plant-litter-soil interactions: a positive feedback. Biogeochemistry 42: 189–220.
267. Olander, L. P., F. N. Scatena, and W. L. Silver (1998). Impacts of disturbance initiated by road construction in a subtropical cloud forest in the Luquillo Experimental Forest, Puerto Rico. Forest Ecology and Management 109: 33–49.
268. Olson, D. M., and E. Dinerstein (2002). The Global 200: Ecoregions for global conservation. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 89: 199–224.
269. Olson, D. M, E. Dinerstein, E. D. Wikramanayake, et al. (2001). Terrestrial ecoregions of the world: a new map of life on Earth. BioScience 51:933– 938. Also available at www.worldwildlife.org/science/data/terreco.cfm.
270. O’Neill, J. P., D. F. Lane, A. W. Kratter, A. P. Capparella, and C. F. Joo (2000). A striking new species of barbet (Capitoninae: Capito) from the eastern Andes of Peru. The Auk 117: 569–577.
271. Pagiola, S. (2002). Paying for water services in Central America: learning from Costa Rica. In Selling Forest Environmental Services: Market-Based Mechanisms for Conservation and Development, eds. S. Pagiola, J. Bishop, and N. Landell-Mills, pp. 36–60. London: Earthscan.
272. Pagiola, S. (2008). Payments for environmental services in Costa Rica. Ecological Economics 65: 712–724.
273. Parrotta, J. A., J. W. Turnbull, and N. Jones (1997). Catalyzing native forest regeneration on degraded tropical lands. Forest Ecology and Management 99: 1–7.
274. Paulsch, A., R. Schneider, and K. Hartig (2001). Land-use induced vegetation structure in a montane region of southern Ecuador. Die Erde 132: 93–102.
275. Paulsch, A., D. Piechowski, and K. Muller-Hohenstein (2008). Forest structure along an altitudinal gradient in Southern Ecuador. In Gradients in a Tropical Mountain Ecosystem of Ecuador, eds. E. Beck, J. Bendix, I. Kottke, F. Makeschin, and R. Mosandl, pp. 113–122. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
276. Pineda, E., and G. Halffter (2004). Species diversity and habitat fragmentation: frogs in a tropical montane landscape in Mexico. Biological Conservation 117: 499–508.
277. Pocs, T. (1980). The epiphytic biomass and its effect on the water balance of two rain forest types in the Uluguru Mountains (Tanzania, East Africa). Acta Botanica Academiae Scientiarum Hungariae 26: 143–167.
278. Pohle, P. (2008). Indigenous land use practices and biodiversity conservation in southern Ecuador. In The Tropical Mountain Forest: Patterns and Processes in a Biodiversity Hotspot, ed. S. R. Gradstein, J. Homeier, and D. Gansert, pp. 163–176. Göttingen, Germany: Göttingen Centre for Biodiversity and Ecology.
279. Ponette-Gonzalez, A. G., K. C. Weathers, and L. M. Curran (2009). Water inputs across a tropical montane landscape in Veracruz, Mexico: synergistic effects of land cover, rain and fog seasonality, and interannual precipitation variability. Global Change Biology, doi:10.1111/j.1365– 2486.2009.01985.x.
280. Porras, I. (2008). Forests, flows and markets for watershed environmental services: evidence from Costa Rica and Panama. Ph.D. thesis, University of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Newcastle, UK.
281. Porras, I. T., M. Grieg-Gran, and N. Neves (2008). All That Glitters: A Review of Payments for Watershed Services in Developing Countries. London: International Institute for Environment and Development.
282. Pounds, J. A. (2000). Amphibians and reptiles. In Monteverde: Ecology and Conservation of a Tropical Cloud Forest, eds. N. M. Nadkarni and N. T. Wheelwright, pp. 149–177. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
283. Pounds, J. A., and M. L. Crump (1994). Amphibian declines and climate disturbance: the case of the golden toad and the harlequin frog. Conservation Biology 8: 72–85.
284. Pounds, J. A., M. P. L. Fogden, and J. H. Campbell (1999). Biological response to climate change on a tropical mountain. Nature 398: 611–615.
285. Pounds, J. A., M. R. Bustamante, L. A. Coloma, et al. (2006). Widespread amphibian extinctions from epidemic disease driven by global warming. Nature 439: 161–167.
286. Prada, S., M. Menezes de Sequeiro, C. Figueira, and M. Oliveira da Silva (2009). Fog precipitation and rainfall interception in the natural forests of Madeira Island (Portugal). Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 149: 1179–1187.
287. Prance, G. T. (ed.) (1982). Biological Diversification in the Tropics. New York: Columbia University Press.
288. Proctor, J., Y. F. Lee, A. M. Langley, W. R. C. Munro, and T. Nelson (1988). Ecological studies on Gunung Silam, a small ultrabasic mountain in Sabah, Malaysia. I. Environment, forest structure, and floristics. Journal of Ecology 76: 320–340.
289. Raich, J. W. (1998). Aboveground productivity and soil respiration in three Hawaiian rainforests. Forest Ecology and Management 107: 309–318.
290. Raich, J. W., A. E. Russell, and P. M. Vitousek (1997). Primary productivity and ecosystem development along an elevational gradient on Mauna Loa, Hawai’i. Ecology 78: 707–721.
291. Ray, D. K., U. S. Nair, R. O. Lawton, R. M. Welch, and R. A. Pielke Sr. (2006). Impact of land use on Costa Rican tropical montane cloud forests: sensitivity of orographic cloud formation to deforestation in the plains. Journal of Geophysical Research 111: D02108, doi:10.1029/2005JD006096.
292. Ray, D. K., R. A. Pielke Sr., U. S. Nair, R. M. Welch, and R. O. Lawton (2009). Importance of land use versus atmospheric information verified from cloud simulations from a frontier region in Costa Rican. Journal of Geophysical Research 114: D08113, doi:10.1029/2007JD009565.
293. Rhodes, A. L., A. J. Guswa, and S. E. Newell (2006). Seasonal variation in the stable isotopic composition of precipitation in the tropical montane forests of Monteverde, Costa Rica. Water Resources Research 42, W11402, doi:10.1029/2005WR004535.
294. Richards, P. W. (1996). The Tropical Rain Forest, 2nd edn. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
295. Richardson, B. A., M. J. Richardson, F. N. Scatena, and W. H. McDowell (2000). Effects of nutrient availability and other elevational changes on bromeliad populations and their invertebrate communities in a humid tropical forest in Puerto Rico. Journal of Tropical Ecology 16: 167–188.
296. Richter, M. (2008). Tropical mountain forests: distribution and general features. In The Tropical Mountain Forest: Patterns and Processes in a Biodiversity hotspot, eds. S. R. Gradstein, J. Homeier, and D. Gansert, pp. 7–24. Göttingen, Germany: Göttingen Centre for Biodiversity and Ecology.
297. Rickets, T. H., G. C. Daily, P. R. Ehrlich, and C. D. Michener (2004). Economic value of tropical forest to coffee production. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 101: 12579–12582.
298. Ridgely, R. S., T. F. Allnutt, T. Brooks, et al. (2007). Digital Distribution Maps of the Birds of the Western Hemisphere, Version 3.0. Arlington, VA: NatureServe. Also available at www.natureserve.org/getData/birdMaps. jsp.
299. Roberts, J. M., J. H. C. Gash, M. Tani, and L. A. Bruijnzeel (2005). Controls on evaporation in lowland tropical rainforest. In Forests, Water and People in the Humid Tropics, eds. M. Bonell and L. A. Bruijnzeel, pp. 287–313. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
300. Roderstein, M., D. Hertel, and Ch. Leuschner (2005). Above-and belowground litter production in three tropical montane forests in southern Ecuador. Journal of Tropical Ecology 21: 483–492.
301. Rodgers, W. A., and K. M. Homewood (1982). Species richness and endemism in the Usambara mountain forests, Tanzania. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 18: 197–242.
302. Rodriguez-Zuñiga, J. M. (2003). Paying for forest environmental services: the Costa Rican experience. Unasylva 212(54): 31–33.
303. Røhr, P. C. (2003). A hydrological study concerning the southern slopes of Mt. Kilimanjaro, Tanzania. Ph.D. thesis, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway.
304. Rojas, M., and B. Aylward (2003). What Are We Learning from Experiences with Markets for Environmental Services in Costa Rica? A Review and Critique of the Literature. London: International Institute for Environment and Development.
305. Rollenbeck, R., J. Bendix, P. Fabian, et al. (2007). Comparison of different techniques for the measurement of precipitation in tropical montane rain forest regions. Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology 24: 156–168.
306. Rovito, S. M., G. Parra-Olea, C. R. Vasquez-Alamazan, T. J. Papenfuss, and D. B. Wake (2009). Dramatic declines in neotropical salamander populations are an important part of the global amphibian crisis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 106: 3231–3236.
307. Ruger, N., G. Williams-Linera, W. D. Kissling, and A. Huth (2008). Longterm impacts of fuelwood extraction on a tropical montane cloud forest. Ecosystems 11: 868–881.
308. Rzedowski, J. (1996). Análisis preliminar de la flora vascular de los bosques mesófilos de montaña de México. Acta Botanica Mexicana 35: 25–44.
309. Salaman, P., T. M. Donegan, M. Mulligan, et al. (2003). A new species of wood-wren (Troglodytidae: Henicorhina) from the western Andes of Colombia. Ornitología Colombiana 1: 4–21.
310. Salzmann, U. (2000). Are modern savannas degraded forests? A Holocene pollen record from the Sudanian vegetation zone of NE Nigeria. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 9: 1–15.
311. Santiago, L. S., G. Goldstein, F. C. Meinzer, J. Fownes, and D. Mueller-Dombois. (2000). Transpiration and forest structure in relation to soil waterlogging in a Hawaiian montane cloud forest. Tree Physiology 20: 673–681.
312. Sarmiento, F. (1997). Arrested succession in pastures hinders regeneration of Tropandean forests and shreds mountain landscapes. Environmental Conservation 24: 14–23.
313. Scatena, F. N. (1995). The management of Luquillo cloud forest ecosystems: irreversible decisions in a non-substitutable ecosystem. In Tropical Montane Cloud Forests, eds. L. S. Hamilton, J. O. Juvik, and F. N. Scatena, pp. 296–308. New York: Springer-Verlag.
314. Scatena, F. N. (1998). An assessment of climatic change in the Luquillo Mountains of Puerto Rico. In American Water Resources Association TPS-98–2: 193–198.
315. Scatena, F. N., E. O. Planos-Gutierrez, and J. Schellekens (2005). Natural disturbances and the hydrology of humid tropical forests. In Forests, Water and People in the Humid Tropics, eds. M. Bonell and L. A. Bruijnzeel, pp. 489–512. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
316. SCBD (Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity) (2003a). Status and trends of, and threats to, mountain biodiversity and marine, coastal and inland water ecosystems. Abstracts of Poster Presentations at the 8th Meeting of the Subsidiary Body on Scientific, Technical and Technological Advice (SBSTTA-8) of the Convention on Biological Diversity, CBD Technical Series No. 8. Montréal, Canada: SCBD. Also available at www.cbd.int/doc/publications/cbd-ts-08.pdf.
317. SCBD (Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity). (2003b). Status and Trends of, and Threats to, Mountain Biological Diversity Document No. UNEP/CBD/SBSTTA/8/5. Montréal, Canada: SCBD. Also available atwww. cbd.int/doc/meetings/sbstta/sbstta-08/official/sbstta-08–05-en.pdf.
318. SCBD (Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity) (2003c). Measures Taken for the Conservation and Sustainable Use of Mountain Biological Diversity, Document No. UNEP/CBD/SBSTTA/8/6. Montréal, Canada: SCBD. Also available at www.cbd.int/doc/meetings/sbstta/sbstta-08/official/sbstta-08–06-en.pdf.
319. SCBD (Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity) (2004). Programme of Work on Mountain Biological Diversity. Montréal, Canada: SCBD. Also available at www.cbd.int/mountain/pow.shtml.
320. Schawe, M., S. Glatzel, and G. Gerold (2007). Soil development along an altitudinal transect in a Bolivian tropical montane rainforest: podzolization vs. hydromorphy. Catena 69: 83–90.
321. Schellekens, J. (2006). CQ-FLOW: A Distributed Hydrological Model for the Prediction of Impacts of Land-Cover Change, with Special Reference to the Rio Chiquito Catchment, Northwest Costa Rica, Annex 3 to Final Technical Report DFID-FRP Project No. R7991. Amsterdam, the Netherlands: Vrije Universiteit. Also available at www.geo.vu.nl/fiesta/.
322. Schrumpf, M. (2004). Biogeochemical investigations in old growth and disturbed forest sites at Mount Kilimanjaro. Ph.D. thesis, University of Bayreuth, Bayreuth, Germany.
323. Schrumpf, M., G. Guggenberger, C. Valarezo, and W. Zech (2001). Tropical montane rain forest soils: development and nutrient status along an altitudinal gradient in the south Ecuadorian Andes. Die Erde 132: 43–59.
324. Schuur, E. (2001). The effect of water on decomposition dynamics in mesic to wet Hawaiian montane forests. Ecosystems 4: 259–273.
325. Schuur, E., and P. Matson (2001). Net primary productivity and nutrient cycling across a mesic to wet precipitation gradient in Hawaiian montane forest. Oecologia 128: 431–442.
326. Schuur, E. A. G., O. A. Chadwick, and P. A. Matson (2001). Carbon cycling and soil carbon storage in mesic to wet Hawaiian montane forests. Ecology 82: 3182–3196.
327. Scott, N. J., Jr. (1976). The abundance and diversity of the herpetofaunas of tropical forest litter. Biotropica 8: 41–58.
328. Setzer, M. C., D. M. Moriarity, R. O. Lawton, et al. (2003). Phytomedicinal potential of tropical cloudforest plants. Revista de Biología Tropical 51: 647–674.
329. Sharon, D. (1980). Distribution of hydrologically effective rainfall incident on sloping ground. Journal of Hydrology 46: 165–188.
330. Sheil, D., and A. Lawrence (2004). Tropical biologists, local people and conservation: new opportunities for collaboration. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 19: 634–638.
331. Shukor, M. N. (2001). Elevational diversity patterns of small mammals on Mount Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia. Global Ecology and Biogeography 10: 41–62.
332. Shuttleworth, W.J. (1988). Evaporation fromAmazonian rain forest. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London Series B 233: 321–346.
333. Sidle, R. C., A. D. Ziegler, J. N. Negishi, et al. (2006). Erosion processes in steep terrain: truths, myths, and uncertainties related to forest management in Southeast Asia. Forest Ecology and Management 224: 199–225.
334. Silver, W. L., A. E. Lugo, and M. Keller (1999). Soil oxygen availability and biogeochemistry along rainfall and topographic gradients in upland wet tropical forest soils. Biogeochemistry 44: 301–328.
335. Soethe, N., J. Lehmann, and C. Engels (2006). The vertical pattern of rooting and nutrient uptake at different altitudes of a south Ecuadorian montane forest. Plant and Soil 286: 287–299.
336. Soethe, N., J. Lehmann, and C. Engels (2007). Carbon and nutrient stocks in roots of forests at different altitudes in the Ecuadorian Andes. Journal of Tropical Ecology 23: 319–328.
337. Soethe, N., W. Wilcke, J. Homeier, J. Lehmann, and C. Engels (2008a). Plant growth along the altitudinal gradient: role of plant nutritional status, fine root activity, and soil properties. In Gradients in a Tropical Mountain Ecosystem of Ecuador, eds. E. Beck, J. Bendix, I. Kottke, F. Makeschin, and R. Mosandl, pp. 259–266. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
338. Soethe, N., J. Lehmann, and C. Engels (2008b). Nutrient availability at different altitudes in a tropical montane forest in Ecuador. Journal of Tropical Ecology 24: 397–406.
339. Spehn, E. M., M. Liberman, and Ch. Korner (eds.) (2006). Land Use Change and Mountain Biodiversity. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
340. Stadtmü ller, T. (1987). Cloud Forests in the Humid Tropics: A Bibliographic Review. Turrialba, Costa Rica: CATIE, and Tokyo: United Nations University. Also available at www.unu.edu/unupress/unupbooks/80670e/80670E00.htm.
341. Stadtmü ller, T., and N. Agudelo. (1990). Amount and variability of cloud moisture input in a tropical cloud forest. International Association of Hydrological Sciences Publication 193: 25–32.
342. Steinhardt, U. (1979). Untersuchungen über den Wasser-und Na¨hrstoffhaushalt eines andinen Wolkenwaldes in Venezuela. Göttinger Bodenkundliche Berichte 56: 1–185.
343. Still, C. J., P. N. Foster, and H. Schneider (1999). Simulating the effects of climate change on tropical montane cloud forests. Nature 398: 608–610.
344. Stimm, B., E. Beck, S. Gunter, et al. (2008). Reforestation of abandoned pastures: seed ecology of native species and production of indigenous plant material. In Gradients in a Tropical Mountain Ecosystem of Ecuador, eds. E. Beck, J. Bendix, I. Kottke, F. Makeschin, and R. Mosandl, pp. 433–445. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
345. Stuart, S., J. S. Chanson, N. A. Cox, et al. (2004). Status and trends of amphibian declines and extinctions worldwide. Science 306: 1783–1786.
346. Suding, K. N., L. G. Gross, and G. R. Houseman (2004). Alternative states and positive feedbacks in restoration ecology. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 19: 46–53.
347. Sugden, A. M., and R. J. Robins (1979). Aspects of the ecology of vascular epiphytes in Colombian cloud forests. I. The distribution of the epiphytic flora. Biotropica 11: 173–188.
348. Sutherland, W. J., W. M. Adams, R. B. Aronson, et al. (2009). One hundred questions of importance to the conservation of global biological diversity. Conservation Biology 23: 557–567.
349. Tanaka, K., H. Takizawa, N. Tanaka, et al. (2003). Transpiration peak over a hill evergreen forest in northern Thailand in the late dry season: assessing the seasonal changes in evapotranspiration using a multilayer model. Journal of Geophysical Research 108, D17, 4533, doi:10.1029/2002JD003028.
350. Tanaka, N., C. Tantasirin, K. Kuraji, M. Suzuki, and N. Tangtham (2005). Inter-annual variation in rainfall interception at a hill evergreen forest in northern Thailand. Bulletin of the Tokyo University Forest 113: 11–44.
351. Tani, M., A. Rahim Nik, Y. Yasuda, et al. (2003). Long-term estimation of evapotranspiration from a tropical rain forest in Peninsular Malaysia. International Association of Hydrological Sciences Publication 280: 267–274.
352. Tanner, E. V. J. (1980). Studies on the biomass and productivity in a series of montane rain forests in Jamaica. Journal of Ecology 68: 573–588.
353. Tanner, E. V. J., P. Vitousek, and E. Cuevas (1998). Experimental investigation of nutrient limitation of forest growth on wet tropical mountains. Ecology 79: 10–22.
354. Ten Hoopen, G. M., and M. Kappelle (2006). Soil seed bank size and composition in disturbed and old growth montane oak forests in Costa Rica. In: Ecology and Conservation of Neotropical Montane Oak Forests, ed. M. Kappelle, pp. 299–308. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
355. Terborgh, J. (1977). Bird species diversity on an Andean elevational gradient. Ecology 58: 1007–1019.
356. Thang, H. C., and N. Chappell (2005). Minimizing the hydrological impact of forest harvesting in Malaysia's rainforests. In Forests, Water and People in the Humid Tropics, eds. M. Bonell and L. A. Bruijnzeel, pp. 852–865. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
357. Tie, Y. L., I. C. Baille, C. M. S. Phang, and C. P. Lim (1979). Soils of Gunung Mulu National Park. Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia: Department of Agriculture.
358. Timm, R. M., and R.K. LaVal (2000). Mammals. In Monteverde: Ecology and Conservation of a Tropical Cloud Forest, eds. N.M. Nadkarni and N. T.Wheelwright, pp. 223–244 and 553–557. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
359. Tobón, C. (2009). Los bosques andinos y el agua, Serie Investigación y Sistematización No. 4. Quito, Ecuador: Programa Regional ECOBONA– INTERCOOPERATION–CONDESAN.
360. Turner, I. M. (1994). Sclerophylly: primarily protective? Functional Ecology 8: 669–675.
361. Turton, S. M. (1990). Light environments within tropical rainforest, Mt. Bellenden Ker, North Queensland. Austral Ecology 15: 35–42.
362. Van der Hammen, T. (1974). The Pleistocene changes of vegetation and climate in tropical South America. Journal of Biogeography 1: 3–26.
363. Van der Hammen, T., and H. Hooghiemstra (2001). Historia y paleoecología de los bosques montanos andinos neotropicales. In Bosques nublados del Neotrópico, eds. M. Kappelle and A. D. Brown, pp. 63–84. Santo Domingo de Heredia, Costa Rica: Editorial INBio and IUCN.
364. Van der Molen, M. K. (2002). Meteorological impacts of land use change in the maritime tropics. Ph.D. thesis, VU University Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands. Also available at www.falw.vu.nl/images_upload/702F8F36–45DC-488E-B2C550BFDCAC2B9D.pdf.
365. Van der Molen, M.K., A. J. Dolman, M. J. Waterloo, and L.A. Bruijnzeel (2006). Climate is affected more by maritime than by continental land use change: amultiple-scale analysis.Global and Planetary Change 54: 128–149.
366. Van Dunne, H. J. F., and M. Kappelle (1998). Biomass–diversity relations of epiphytic bryophytes on small Quercus copeyensis stems in a Costa Rican montane cloud forest. Revista de Biología Tropical 46: 35–42.
367. Van Reuler, H. (1987). Soil studies in the Bukit Raya nature reserve. In Report of the 1982–1983 Bukit Raya Expedition, ed. H. P. Nooteboom, pp. 7–23. Leiden, the Netherlands: Rijksherbarium.
368. Van Steenis, C. G. G. J. (1972). The Mountain Flora of Java. Leiden, the Netherlands: E.J. Brill.
369. Vazquez-Garcia, J. A. (1995). Cloud forest archipelagos: preservation of fragmented montane ecosystems in tropical America. In Tropical Montane Cloud Forests, eds. L. S. Hamilton, J. O. Juvik, and F. N. Scatena, pp. 314– 332. New York: Springer-Verlag.
370. Veneklaas, E. J., and R. van Ek (1990). Rainfall interception in two tropical montane rain forests, Colombia. Hydrological Processes 4: 311–326.
371. Veneklaas, E. J., R. J. Zagt, A. van Leerdam, et al. (1990). Hydrological properties of the epiphyte mass of a montane tropical rain forest, Colombia. Vegetatio 89: 183–192.
372. Vernimmen, R. R. E., L. A. Bruijnzeel, D. Romdoni, and J. Proctor (2007). Rainfall interception in three contrasting rain forest types in Central Kalimantan, Indonesia. Journal of Hydrology 340: 217–232.
373. Vis, M. (1986). Interception, drop size distributions and rainfall kinetic energy in four Colombian forest ecosystems. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 11: 591–603.
374. Vogelmann, H. W. (1973). Fog precipitation in the cloud forests of Eastern Mexico. BioScience 23: 96–100.
375. Wadsworth, F. H., and J. A. Bonnet (1951). Soil as a factor in the occurrence of two types of montane forest in Puerto Rico. Caribbean Forester 12: 67–70.
376. Waide, R. B., J. K. Zimmerman, and F. N. Scatena (1998). Controls of primary productivity: lessons from the Luquillo Mountains in Puerto Rico. Ecology 79: 31–37.
377. Walmsley, J. L., R. S. Schemenauer, and H. A. Bridgman (1996). A method for estimating the hydrologic input from fog in mountainous terrain. Journal of Applied Meteorology 35: 2237–2249.
378. Walmsley, J.L., W.R. Burrows, and R.S. Schemenauer (1999). The use of routine observations to calculate liquid water content in summertime high-elevation fog. Journal of Applied Meteorology 38: 369–384.
379. Watson, D. M, and A. Townsend Peterson (1999). Determinants of diversity in a naturally fragmented landscape: humid montane forest avifaunas of Mesoamerica. Ecography 22: 582–589.
380. WDPA Consortium (2004). World database on Protected Areas 2004. Gland, Switzerland: World Conservation Union (IUCN), and Cambridge, UK: UNEP–World Conservation Monitoring Centre. (Source for this data-set was the Global Land Cover Facility.)
381. Weaver, P. L. (1972). Cloud moisture interception in the Luquillo mountains of Puerto Rico. Caribbean Journal of Science 12: 129–144.
382. Weaver, P. L. (1986). Hurricane damage and recovery in the montane forests of Puerto Rico. Caribbean Journal of Science 15: 21–30.
383. Weaver, P. L. (1990). Succession in the elfin woodland of the Luquillo Mountains of Puerto Rico. Biotropica 22: 83–89.
384. Weaver, P. L. (1999). Impacts of Hurricane Hugo on the dwarf cloud forest of Puerto Rico's Luquillo Mountains. Caribbean Journal of Science 35: 101–111.
385. Weaver, P. L., and P.G Murphy (1990). Forest structure and productivity in Puerto Rico's Luquillo Mountains. Biotropica 22: 69–82.
386. Weber, M., S. Günter, N. Aguirre, B. Stimm, and R. Mosandl (2008). Reforestation of abandoned pastures: silvicultural means to accelerate forest recovery and biodiversity. In Gradients in a Tropical Mountain Ecosystem of Ecuador, eds. E. Beck, J. Bendix, I. Kottke, F. Makeschin, and R. Mosandl, pp. 447–457. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
387. Webster, P. J., G. J. Holland, J. A. Curry, and H. R. Chang (2005). Changes in tropical cyclone number, duration and intensity in a warming environment. Science 309: 1844–1846.
388. Welch, R. M., S. Asefi, J. Zeng, et al. (2008). Biogeography of tropical montane cloud forests. I. Remote sensing of cloud base heights. Journal of Applied Meterology and Climatology 47: 960–975.
389. Whitmore, T. C. (1989). Tropicasl forest nutrients, where do we stand? A tour de horizon. In Mineral Nutrients in Tropical Forest and Savanna Ecosystems, ed. J. Proctor, pp. 1–13. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Scientific.
390. Williams, J. W., S. T. Jackson, and J. E. Kutzbach (2007). Projected distributions of novel and disappearing climates by 2100 AD. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 104: 5738–5742.
391. Williams, S., E. Bolitho, and S. Fox (2003). Climate change in Australian tropical rainforests: an impending environmental catastrophe. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series B 270: 1887–1893.
392. Williams-Linera, G. (2002). Tree species richness complementarity, disturbance and fragmentation in a Mexican tropical montane cloud forest. Biodiversity and Conservation 11: 1825–1843.
393. Williams-Linera, G., A. M. Lopez, and M. A. Muñiz (2005). Complementariedad y patrones de anidamiento de especies de árboles en el paisaje de bosque de niebla del centro deVeracruz (México). In Sobre diversidad biológica: el significado de las diversidades alfa, beta y gamma, eds. G. Halffter, J. Soberón, P. Koleff, and A. Melic, pp. 153–164. Zaragoza, Mexico: m3m-Monografías Tercer Milenio.
394. Wilms, J. J. A. M., and M. Kappelle (2006). Frugivorous birds and seed dispersal in disturbed and old growth montane oak forests in Costa Rica. In Ecology and Conservation of Neotropical Montane Oak Forests, ed. M. Kappelle, pp. 309–324. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
395. Wilson, L. D., and J. R. McCranie (2004). The conservation status of the herpetofauna of Honduras. Amphibian and Reptile Conservation 3: 6–33.
396. Wolf, J. H. D. (1993). Diversity patterns and biomass of epiphytic bryophytes and lichens along an altitudinal gradient in the northern Andes. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 80: 928–960.
397. Wolf, J. H. D. (1994). Factors controlling the distribution of vascular and nonvascular epiphytes in the northern Andes. Vegetatio 112: 15–28.
398. Wolf, J. H. D. (1995). Non vascular epiphyte diversity patterns in the canopy of an Upper Montane Rain Forest, Central Cordillera, Colombia. Selbyana 16: 185–195.
399. Wolf, J. H. D. (2005). The response of epiphytes to anthropogenic disturbance of pine–oak forests in the highlands of Chiapas, Mexico. Forest Ecology and Management 212: 376–393.
400. Wolf, J. H. D., and A. Flamenco-Sandoval (2006). Vascular epiphytes and their potential as a conservation tool in pine-oak forests of Chiapas, Mexico. In Ecology and Conservation of Neotropical Montane Oak Forests, ed. M. Kappelle, pp. 375–391. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
401. Wolf, J. H. D., and C. J. F. Konings (2001). Toward the sustainable harvesting of epiphytic bromeliads: a pilot study from the highlands of Chiapas, Mexico. Biological Conservation 101: 23–31.
402. Wu, W., C.A. Hall, F.N. Scatena, and L. J. Quackenbush (2006). Spatial modeling of evapotranspiration in the Luquillo Experimental Forest of Puerto Rico using remotely-sensed data. Journal of Hydrology 328: 733–752.
403. Yang, D., B. E. Goodison, S. Ishida, and C. S. Benson (1998). Adjustment of daily precipitation data at 10 climate stations in Alaska: application of World Meteorological Organization intercomparison results. Water Resources Research 34: 241–256.
404. Yin, X. W., and P. A. Arp (1994). Fog contributions to the water budget of forested watersheds in the Canadian Maritime Provinces: a generalized algorithm for low elevations. Atmosphere–Ocean 32: 553–566.
405. Young, B. E., and D.B McDonald (2000). Birds. In Monteverde: Ecology and Conservation of a Tropical Cloud Forest, eds. N. M. Nadkarni and N. T. Wheelwright, pp. 179–222. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
406. Zadroga, F. (1981). The hydrological importance of a montane cloud forest area of Costa Rica. In Tropical Agricultural Hydrology, eds. R. Lal and E. W. Russell, pp. 59–73. New York: John Wiley.
407. Zimmermann, B., and H. Elsenbeer (2008). Spatial and temporal variability of soil saturated hydraulic conductivity in gradients of disturbance. Journal of Hydrology 361: 78–95.
408. Zimmerman, J. K., J. B. Pascarella, and T. M. Aide (2000). Barriers to forest regeneration in an abandoned pasture in Puerto Rico. Restoration Ecology 8: 350–360.
409. Zotz, G. (1999). Altitudinal changes in diversity and abundance of nonvascular epiphytes in the tropics: an ecophysiological explanation. Selbyana 20: 256–260.
410. Zotz, G., and M. Y. Bader (2009). Epiphytic plants in a changing world: global change effects on vascular and non-vascular epiphytes. Progress in Botany 70: 147–170.