Principles of transthoracic echocardiographic evaluation

Nature Reviews Cardiology

Volumn 12, Issue 7, 2015, Pages 426-440

  Boyd, Anita C ^a   Schiller, Nelson B ^b   Thomas, Liza ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF NEW SOUTH WALES   (Australia)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CONTRAST MEDIUM;

CARDIOVASCULAR FUNCTION; CARDIOVASCULAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE; CLINICAL EVALUATION; CONTRAST ECHOCARDIOGRAPHY; DIASTOLE; DOPPLER ECHOCARDIOGRAPHY; HEART FUNCTION; HUMAN; LEFT VENTRICULAR SYSTOLIC DYSFUNCTION; MECHANICAL TORSION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROGNOSIS; REVIEW; SPECTRAL DOPPLER ECHOCARDIOGRAPHY; STRESS ECHOCARDIOGRAPHY; SYSTOLE; THREE DIMENSIONAL ECHOCARDIOGRAPHY; TISSUE DOPPLER IMAGING; TRANSTHORACIC ECHOCARDIOGRAPHY; TWO DIMENSIONAL ECHOCARDIOGRAPHY; ECHOCARDIOGRAPHY; ECHOGRAPHY; HEART DISEASE; PROCEDURES;

CONTRAST MEDIA; ECHOCARDIOGRAPHY; ECHOCARDIOGRAPHY, DOPPLER, COLOR; ECHOCARDIOGRAPHY, STRESS; ECHOCARDIOGRAPHY, THREE-DIMENSIONAL; HEART DISEASES; HUMANS; PROGNOSIS;

EID: 84931956967     PISSN: 17595002     EISSN: 17595010     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1038/nrcardio.2015.57     Document Type: Review

References (208)

1. Braunwald, E. The rise of cardiovascular medicine. Eur. Heart J. 33, 838-845 (2012).
2. Edler, I. & Lindstrom, K. The history of echocardiography. Ultrasound Med. Biol. 30, 1565-1644 (2004).
3. Feigenbaum, H. Evolution of echocardiography. Circulation 93, 1321-1327 (1996).
4. Lang, R. M. et al. Recommendations for chamber quantification: a report from the American Society of Echocardiography's Guidelines and Standards Committee and the Chamber Quantification Writing Group, developed in conjunction with the European Association of Echocardiography, a branch of the European Society of Cardiology. J. Am. Soc. Echocardiogr. 18, 1440-1463 (2005).
5. Ganau, A. et al. Patterns of left ventricular hypertrophy and geometric remodeling in essential hypertension. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 19, 1550-1558 (1992).
6. White, H. D. et al. Left ventricular end-systolic volume as the major determinant of survival after recovery from myocardial infarction. Circulation 76, 44-51 (1987).
7. McManus, D. D. et al. Prognostic value of left ventricular end-systolic volume index as a predictor of heart failure hospitalization in stable coronary artery disease: data from the Heart and Soul Study. J. Am. Soc. Echocardiogr. 22, 190-197 (2009).
8. Leung, D. Y. et al. Left ventricular function after valve repair for chronic mitral regurgitation: predictive value of preoperative assessment of contractile reserve by exercise echocardiography. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 28, 1198-1205 (1996).
9. Zile, M. R. & Lewinter, M. M. Left ventricular end-diastolic volume is normal in patients with heart failure and a normal ejection fraction: a renewed consensus in diastolic heart failure. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 49, 982-985 (2007).
10. Picard, M. H., Wilkins, G. T., Ray, P. A. & Weyman, A. E. Natural history of left ventricular size and function after acute myocardial infarction: assessment and prediction by echocardiographic endocardial surface mapping. Circulation 82, 484-494 (1990).
11. St John Sutton, M. et al. Cardiovascular death and left ventricular remodeling two years after myocardial infarction: baseline predictors and impact of long-Term use of captopril: information from the Survival and Ventricular Enlargement (SAVE) trial. Circulation 96, 3294-3299 (1997).
12. Bonow, R. O. et al. Guidelines for the management of patients with valvular heart disease: executive summary. A report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines (Committee on Management of Patients with Valvular Heart Disease). Circulation 98, 1949-1984 (1998).
13. Michels, V. V. et al. Progression of familial and non-familial dilated cardiomyopathy: long term follow up. Heart 89, 757-761 (2003).
14. Harris, K. M. et al. Prevalence, clinical profile, and significance of left ventricular remodeling in the end-stage phase of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Circulation 114, 216-225 (2006).
15. Moss, A. J. et al. Improved survival with an implanted defibrillator in patients with coronary disease at high risk for ventricular arrhythmia. N. Engl. J. Med. 335, 1933-1940 (1996).
16. Moss, A. J. et al. Prophylactic implantation of a defibrillator in patients with myocardial infarction and reduced ejection fraction. N. Engl. J. Med. 346, 877-883 (2002).
17. Demir, H. et al. Comparison of gated SPECT, echocardiography and cardiac magnetic resonance imaging for the assessment of left ventricular ejection fraction and volumes. Ann. Saudi Med. 27, 415-420 (2007).
18. Otterstad, J. E. Measuring left ventricular volume and ejection fraction with the biplane Simpson's method. Heart 88, 559-560 (2002).
19. Nagueh, S. F. et al. Recommendations for the evaluation of left ventricular diastolic function by echocardiography. J. Am. Soc. Echocardiogr. 22, 107-133 (2009).
20. Tsang, T. S. et al. Prediction of risk for first age-related cardiovascular events in an elderly population: the incremental value of echocardiography. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 42, 1199-1205 (2003).
21. Kizer, J. R. et al. Left atrial diameter as an independent predictor of first clinical cardiovascular events in middle-Aged and elderly adults: the Strong Heart Study (SHS). Am. Heart J. 151, 412-418 (2006).
22. Lim, T. K., Dwivedi, G., Hayat, S., Majumdar, S. & Senior, R. Independent value of left atrial volume index for the prediction of mortality in patients with suspected heart failure referred from the community. Heart 95, 1172-1178 (2009).
23. Moller, J. E. et al. Left atrial volume: a powerful predictor of survival after acute myocardial infarction. Circulation 107, 2207-2212 (2003).
24. Arias, A. et al. Prognostic value of left atrial volume in asymptomatic organic mitral regurgitation. J. Am. Soc. Echocardiogr. 26, 699-705 (2013).
25. Abhayaratna, W. P. et al. Left atrial reservoir function as a potent marker for first atrial fibrillation or flutter in persons > or = 65 years of age. Am. J. Cardiol. 101, 1626-1629 (2008).
26. Cioffi, G., Mureddu, G. F., Stefenelli, C. & de Simone, G. Relationship between left ventricular geometry and left atrial size and function in patients with systemic hypertension. J. Hypertens. 22, 1589-1596 (2004).
27. Chinali, M. et al. Left atrial systolic force and cardiovascular outcome. The Strong Heart Study. Am. J. Hypertens. 18, 1570-1577 (2005).
28. Ho, S. Y. & Nihoyannopoulos, P. Anatomy, echocardiography, and normal right ventricular dimensions. Heart 92 (Suppl 1), i2-i13 (2006).
29. Rudski, L. G. et al. Guidelines for the echocardiographic assessment of the right heart in adults: a report from the American Society of Echocardiography endorsed by the European Association of Echocardiography, a registered branch of the European Society of Cardiology, and the Canadian Society of Echocardiography. J. Am. Sco. Echoardiogr. 23, 685-713 (2010).
30. Burgess, M. I. et al. Comparison of echocardiographic markers of right ventricular function in determining prognosis in chronic pulmonary disease. J. Am. Soc. Echocardiogr. 15, 633-639 (2002).
31. Fremont, B. et al. Prognostic value of echocardiographic right/left ventricular end-diastolic diameter ratio in patients with acute pulmonary embolism: results from a monocenter registry of 1, 416 patients. Chest 133, 358-362 (2008).
32. Zoghbi, W. A. et al. Recommendations for evaluation of the severity of native valvular regurgitation with two-dimensional and Doppler echocardiography. J. Am. Soc. Echocardiogr. 16, 777-802 (2003).
33. Zoghbi, W. A. et al. Recommendations for evaluation of prosthetic valves with echocardiography and Doppler ultrasound. J. Am. Soc. Echocardiogr. 22, 975-1014 (2009).
34. Perry, G. J. & Nanda, N. C. Color doppler echocardiography. Int. J. Card. Imaging 3, 183-191 (1988).
35. Enriquez-Sarano, M. et al. Effective mitral regurgitant orifice area: clinical use and pitfalls of the proximal isovelocity surface area method. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 25, 703-709 (1995).
36. Grigioni, F., Enriquez-Sarano, M., Zehr, K. J., Bailey, K. R. & Tajik, A. J. Ischemic mitral regurgitation: long-Term outcome and prognostic implications with quantitative Doppler assessment. Circulation 103, 1759-1764 (2001).
37. Enriquez-Sarano, M. et al. Quantitative determinants of the outcome of asymptomatic mitral regurgitation. N. Engl. J. Med. 352, 875-883 (2005).
38. Williams, L. K., Frenneaux, M. P. & Steeds, R. P. Echocardiography in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy diagnosis, prognosis, and role in management. Eur. J. Echocardiogr. 10, iii9-iii14 (2009).
39. Quinones, M. A., Otto, C. M, , Stoddard, M., Waggoner, A. & Zoghbi, W. A. Recommendations for quantification of Doppler echocardiography: a report from the Doppler Quantification Task Force of the Nomenclature and Standards Committee of the American Society of Echocardiography. J. Am. Soc. Echocardiogr. 15, 167-184 (2002).
40. Baumgartner, H. et al. Echocardiographic assessment of valve stenosis: EAE/ASE recommendations for clinical practice. J. Am. Soc. Echocardiogr. 22, 1-23 (2009).
41. van Kraaij, D. J. et al. Diagnosing diastolic heart failure. Eur. J. Heart Fail. 4, 419-430 (2002).
42. Levy, D., Garrison, R. J., Savage, D. D., Kannel, W. B. & Castelli, W. P. Prognostic implications of echocardiographically determined left ventricular mass in the Framingham Heart Study. N. Engl. J. Med. 322, 1561-1566 (1990).
43. Koren, M. J., Devereux, R. B., Casale, P. N., Savage, D. D. & Laragh, J. H. Relation of left ventricular mass and geometry to morbidity and mortality in uncomplicated essential hypertension. Ann. Intern. Med. 114, 345-352 (1991).
44. Verdecchia, P. et al. Adverse prognostic significance of concentric remodeling of the left ventricle in hypertensive patients with normal left ventricular mass. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 25, 871-878 (1995).
45. Schillaci, G. et al. Prognostic significance of left ventricular diastolic dysfunction in essential hypertension. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 39, 2005-2011 (2002).
46. Bella, J. N. et al. Mitral ratio of peak early to late diastolic filling velocity as a predictor of mortality in middle-Aged and elderly adults: the Strong Heart Study. Circulation 105, 1928-1933 (2002).
47. Little, W. C. & Oh, J. K. Echocardiographic evaluation of diastolic function can be used to guide clinical care. Circulation 120, 802-809 (2009).
48. Grewal, J., McCully, R. B., Kane, G. C., Lam, C. & Pellikka, P. A. Left ventricular function and exercise capacity. JAMA 301, 286-294 (2009).
49. Whalley, G. A., Gamble, G. D. & Doughty, R. N. Restrictive diastolic filling predicts death after acute myocardial infarction: systematic review and meta-Analysis of prospective studies. Heart 92, 1588-1594 (2006).
50. Aljaroudi, W. et al. Impact of progression of diastolic dysfunction on mortality in patients with normal ejection fraction. Circulation 125, 782-788 (2012).
51. Mor-Avi, V. et al. Current and evolving echocardiographic techniques for the quantitative evaluation of cardiac mechanics: ASE/EAE consensus statement on methodology and indications endorsed by the Japanese Society of Echocardiography. J. Am. Soc. Echocardiogr. 24, 277-313 (2011).
52. Isaaz, K., Munoz del Romeral, L., Lee, E. & Schiller, N. B. Quantitation of the motion of the cardiac base in normal subjects by Doppler echocardiography. J. Am. Soc. Echocardiogr. 6, 166-176 (1993).
53. Voigt, J. U. et al. Comparison of deformation imaging and velocity imaging for detecting regional inducible ischaemia during dobutamine stress echocardiography. Eur. Heart J. 25, 1517-1525 (2004).
54. Wang, M. et al. Independent and incremental prognostic value of early mitral annulus velocity in patients with impaired left ventricular systolic function. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 45, 272-277 (2005).
55. Nikitin, N. P. et al. Prognostic value of systolic mitral annular velocity measured with Doppler tissue imaging in patients with chronic heart failure caused by left ventricular systolic dysfunction. Heart 92, 775-779 (2006).
56. Agarwal, R. et al. Tissue Doppler imaging for diagnosis of coronary artery disease: a systematic review and meta-Analysis. Cardiovasc. Ultrasound 10, 47 (2012).
57. Alam, M., Wardell, J., Andersson, E., Samad, B. A. & Nordlander, R. Effects of first myocardial infarction on left ventricular systolic and diastolic function with the use of mitral annular velocity determined by pulsed wave doppler tissue imaging. J. Am. Soc. Echocardiogr. 13, 343-352 (2000).
58. Nagueh, S. F. et al. Tissue Doppler imaging consistently detects myocardial abnormalities in patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy and provides a novel means for an early diagnosis before and independently of hypertrophy. Circulation 104, 128-130 (2001).
59. Song, Y. et al. Tissue Doppler imaging predicts left ventricular reverse remodeling after surgery for mitral regurgitation. Ann. Thorac. Surg. 96, 2109-2115 (2013).
60. Kitaoka, H. et al. Tissue Doppler imaging and prognosis in asymptomatic or mildly symptomatic patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Eur. Heart J. Cardiovasc. Imaging 14, 544-549 (2013).
61. Dini, F. L. et al. Abnormal left ventricular longitudinal function assessed by echocardiographic and tissue Doppler imaging is a powerful predictor of diastolic dysfunction in hypertensive patients: the SPHERE study. Int. J. Cardiol. 168, 3351-3358 (2013).
62. Altinmakas, S. et al. Prediction of viability by pulsed-wave Doppler tissue sampling of asynergic myocardium during low-dose dobutamine challenge. Int. J. Cardiol. 74, 107-113 (2000).
63. Marwick, T. H. et al. Use of tissue Doppler imaging to facilitate the prediction of events in patients with abnormal left ventricular function by dobutamine echocardiography. Am. J. Cardiol. 93, 142-146 (2004).
64. Bax, J. J. et al. Left ventricular dyssynchrony predicts response and prognosis after cardiac resynchronization therapy. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 44, 1834-1840 (2004).
65. Yu, C. M. et al. Predictors of left ventricular reverse remodeling after cardiac resynchronization therapy for heart failure secondary to idiopathic dilated or ischemic cardiomyopathy. Am. J. Cardiol. 91, 684-688 (2003).
66. Peterson, P. N. et al. QRS duration, bundle-branch block morphology, and outcomes among older patients with heart failure receiving cardiac resynchronization therapy. JAMA 310, 617-626 (2013).
67. Yu, C. M., Lin, H., Zhang, Q. & Sanderson, J. E. High prevalence of left ventricular systolic and diastolic asynchrony in patients with congestive heart failure and normal QRS duration. Heart 89, 54-60 (2003).
68. Sohn, D. W. et al. Assessment of mitral annulus velocity by Doppler tissue imaging in the evaluation of left ventricular diastolic function. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 30, 474-480 (1997).
69. Yu, C. M., Sanderson, J. E., Marwick, T. H. & Oh, J. K. Tissue Doppler imaging a new prognosticator for cardiovascular diseases. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 49, 1903-1914 (2007).
70. Wang, M. et al. Peak early diastolic mitral annulus velocity by tissue Doppler imaging adds independent and incremental prognostic value. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 41, 820-826 (2003).
71. Nagueh, S. F., Middleton, K. J., Kopelen, H. A., Zoghbi, W. A. & Quinones, M. A. Doppler tissue imaging: a noninvasive technique for evaluation of left ventricular relaxation and estimation of filling pressures. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 30, 1527-1533 (1997).
72. Hillis, G. S. et al. Noninvasive estimation of left ventricular filling pressure by E/e' is a powerful predictor of survival after acute myocardial infarction. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 43, 360-367 (2004).
73. Holland, D. J., Prasad, S. B. & Marwick, T. H. Prognostic implications of left ventricular filling pressure with exercise. Circ. Cardiovasc. Imaging 3, 149-156 (2010).
74. Ho, C. Y. et al. Assessment of diastolic function with Doppler tissue imaging to predict genotype in preclinical hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Circulation 105, 2992-2997 (2002).
75. Koyama, J., Ray-Sequin, P. A., Davidoff, R. & Falk, R. H. Usefulness of pulsed tissue Doppler imaging for evaluating systolic and diastolic left ventricular function in patients with AL (primary) amyloidosis. Am. J. Cardiol. 89, 1067-1071 (2002).
76. Pieroni, M. et al. Early detection of Fabry cardiomyopathy by tissue Doppler imaging. Circulation 107, 1978-1984 (2003).
77. Oh, J. K., Park, S. J. & Nagueh, S. F. Established and novel clinical applications of diastolic function assessment by echocardiography. Circ. Cardiovasc. Imaging 4, 444-455 (2011).
78. Ho, C. Y. & Solomon, S. D. A clinician's guide to tissue Doppler imaging. Circulation 113, e396-e398 (2006).
79. Unzek, S., Popovic, Z. B., Marwick, T. H. & Diastolic Guidelines Concordance Investigators. Effect of recommendations on interobserver consistency of diastolic function evaluation. JACC Cardiovasc. Imaging 4, 460-467 (2011).
80. Kane, G. C. et al. Progression of left ventricular diastolic dysfunction and risk of heart failure. JAMA 306, 856-863 (2011).
81. Reuss, C. S. et al. Using mitral annulus reversus to diagnose constrictive pericarditis. Eur. J. Echocardiogr. 10, 372-375 (2009).
82. Thomas, L. et al. Changes in regional left atrial function with aging: evaluation by Doppler tissue imaging. Eur. J. Echocardiogr. 4, 92-100 (2003).
83. Yu, C. M. et al. Tissue Doppler echocardiographic evidence of atrial mechanical dysfunction in coronary artery disease. Int. J. Cardiol. 105, 178-185 (2005).
84. Boyd, A. C., Schiller, N. B., Ross, D. L. & Thomas, L. Segmental atrial contraction in patients restored to sinus rhythm after cardioversion for chronic atrial fibrillation: a colour Doppler tissue imaging study. Eur. J. Echocardiogr. 9, 12-17 (2008).
85. Chia, E. M. et al. Effects of age and gender on right ventricular systolic and diastolic function using two-dimensional speckle-Tracking strain. J. Am. Soc. Echocardiogr. 27, 1079-1086.e1 (2014).
86. Meluzin, J. et al. Pulsed Doppler tissue imaging of the velocity of tricuspid annular systolic motion; a new, rapid, and non-invasive method of evaluating right ventricular systolic function. Eur. Heart J. 22, 340-348 (2001).
87. Urheim, S. et al. Relation of tissue displacement and strain to invasively determined right ventricular stroke volume. Am. J. Cardiol. 96, 1173-1178 (2005).
88. Bos, J. M. et al. Right ventricular function in asymptomatic individuals with a systemic right ventricle. J. Am. Soc. Echocardiogr. 19, 1033-1037 (2006).
89. La Gerche, A. et al. Exercise-induced right ventricular dysfunction and structural remodelling in endurance athletes. Eur. Heart J. 33, 998-1006 (2012).
90. Sengupta, P. P. et al. Left ventricular form and function revisited: applied translational science to cardiovascular ultrasound imaging. J. Am. Soc. Echocardiogr. 20, 539-551 (2007).
91. Stanton, T., Leano, R. & Marwick, T. H. Prediction of all-cause mortality from global longitudinal speckle strain: comparison with ejection fraction and wall motion scoring. Circ. Cardiovasc. Imaging 2, 356-364 (2009).
92. Nahum, J. et al. Impact of longitudinal myocardial deformation on the prognosis of chronic heart failure patients. Circ. Cardiovasc. Imaging 3, 249-256 (2010).
93. Ganame, J. et al. Myocardial dysfunction late after low-dose anthracycline treatment in asymptomatic pediatric patients. J. Am. Soc. Echocardiogr. 20, 1351-1358 (2007).
94. Jurcut, R. et al. Strain rate imaging detects early cardiac effects of pegylated liposomal Doxorubicin as adjuvant therapy in elderly patients with breast cancer. J. Am. Soc. Echocardiogr. 21, 1283-1289 (2008).
95. Hare, J. L. et al. Use of myocardial deformation imaging to detect preclinical myocardial dysfunction before conventional measures in patients undergoing breast cancer treatment with trastuzumab. Am. Heart J. 158, 294-301 (2009).
96. Stoodley, P. W. et al. Two-dimensional myocardial strain imaging detects changes in left ventricular systolic function immediately after anthracycline chemotherapy. Eur. J. Echocardiogr. 12, 945-952 (2011).
97. Thavendiranathan, P. et al. Use of myocardial strain imaging by echocardiography for the early detection of cardiotoxicity in patients during and after cancer chemotherapy: a systematic review. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 63, 2751-2768 (2014).
98. Dokainish, H., Sengupta, R., Pillai, M., Bobek, J. & Lakkis, N. Usefulness of new diastolic strain and strain rate indexes for the estimation of left ventricular filling pressure. Am. J. Cardiol. 101, 1504-1509 (2008).
99. Cho, G. Y., Chan, J., Leano, R., Strudwick, M. & Marwick, T. H. Comparison of two-dimensional speckle and tissue velocity based strain and validation with harmonic phase magnetic resonance imaging. Am. J. Cardiol. 97, 1661-1666 (2006).
100. Leung, D. Y. & Ng, A. C. Emerging clinical role of strain imaging in echocardiography. Heart Lung Circ. 19, 161-174 (2010).
101. Takigiku, K. et al. Normal range of left ventricular 2-dimensional strain: Japanese Ultrasound Speckle Tracking of the Left Ventricle (JUSTICE) study. Circ. J. 76, 2623-2632 (2012).
102. Marwick, T. H. et al. Myocardial strain measurement with 2-dimensional speckle-Tracking echocardiography: definition of normal range. JACC Cardiovasc. Imaging 2, 80-84 (2009).
103. Hoit, B. D. Strain and strain rate echocardiography and coronary artery disease. Circ. Cardiovasc. Imaging 4, 179-190 (2011).
104. Chan, J. et al. Differentiation of subendocardial and transmural infarction using two-dimensional strain rate imaging to assess short-Axis and long-Axis myocardial function. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 48, 2026-2033 (2006).
105. Skulstad, H. et al. Grading of myocardial dysfunction by tissue Doppler echocardiography: a comparison between velocity, displacement, and strain imaging in acute ischemia. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 47, 1672-1682 (2006).
106. Ersboll, M. et al. Relationship between left ventricular longitudinal deformation and clinical heart failure during admission for acute myocardial infarction: a two-dimensional speckle-Tracking study. J. Am. Soc. Echocardiogr. 25, 1280-1289 (2012).
107. Ersboll, M. et al. Prediction of all-cause mortality and heart failure admissions from global left ventricular longitudinal strain in patients with acute myocardial infarction and preserved left ventricular ejection fraction. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 61, 2365-2373 (2013).
108. Ersboll, M. et al. Early diastolic strain rate in relation to systolic and diastolic function and prognosis in acute myocardial infarction: a two-dimensional speckle-Tracking study. Eur. Heart J. 35, 648-656 (2014).
109. Hsu, P. C. et al. The ratio of early mitral inflow velocity to global diastolic strain rate as a useful predictor of cardiac outcomes in patients with atrial fibrillation. J. Am. Soc. Echocardiogr. 27, 717-725 (2014).
110. Yang, H. et al. Use of strain imaging in detecting segmental dysfunction in patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. J. Am. Soc. Echocardiogr. 16, 233-239 (2003).
111. Kato, T. S. et al. Discrimination of nonobstructive hypertrophic cardiomyopathy from hypertensive left ventricular hypertrophy on the basis of strain rate imaging by tissue Doppler ultrasonography. Circulation 110, 3808-3814 (2004).
112. Bellavia, D. et al. Detection of left ventricular systolic dysfunction in cardiac amyloidosis with strain rate echocardiography. J. Am. Soc. Echocardiogr. 20, 1194-1202 (2007).
113. Sun, J. P. et al. Differentiation of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy and cardiac amyloidosis from other causes of ventricular wall thickening by two-dimensional strain imaging echocardiography. Am. J. Cardiol. 103, 411-415 (2009).
114. Koyama, J., Ray-Sequin, P. A. & Falk, R. H. Longitudinal myocardial function assessed by tissue velocity, strain, and strain rate tissue Doppler echocardiography in patients with AL (primary) cardiac amyloidosis. Circulation 107, 2446-2452 (2003).
115. Phelan, D. et al. Relative apical sparing of longitudinal strain using two-dimensional speckle-Tracking echocardiography is both sensitive and specific for the diagnosis of cardiac amyloidosis. Heart 98, 1442-1448 (2012).
116. Shanks, M. et al. Systolic and diastolic function assessment in fabry disease patients using speckle-Tracking imaging and comparison with conventional echocardiographic measurements. J. Am. Soc. Echocardiogr. 26, 1407-1414 (2013).
117. Ogata, H. et al. Myocardial strain changes in Duchenne muscular dystrophy without overt cardiomyopathy. Int. J. Cardiol. 115, 190-195 (2007).
118. Cardinale, D. et al. Anthracycline-induced cardiomyopathy: clinical relevance and response to pharmacologic therapy. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 55, 213-220 (2010).
119. Stoodley, P. W. et al. Altered left ventricular longitudinal diastolic function correlates with reduced systolic function immediately after anthracycline chemotherapy. Eur. Heart J. Cardiovasc. Imaging 14, 228-234 (2013).
120. Fallah-Rad, N. et al. The utility of cardiac biomarkers, tissue velocity and strain imaging, and cardiac magnetic resonance imaging in predicting early left ventricular dysfunction in patients with human epidermal growth factor receptor II-positive breast cancer treated with adjuvant trastuzumab therapy. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 57, 2263-2270 (2011).
121. Sawaya, H. et al. Early detection and prediction of cardiotoxicity in chemotherapy-Treated patients. Am. J. Cardiol. 107, 1375-1380 (2011).
122. Tsai, H. R. et al. Left ventricular function assessed by two-dimensional speckle tracking echocardiography in long-Term survivors of Hodgkin's lymphoma treated by mediastinal radiotherapy with or without anthracycline therapy. Am. J. Cardiol. 107, 472-477 (2011).
123. Plana, J. C. et al. Expert consensus for multimodality imaging evaluation of adult patients during and after cancer therapy: a report from the American Society of Echocardiography and the European Association of Cardiovascular Imaging. Eur. Heart J. Cardiovasc. Imaging 15, 1063-1093 (2014).
124. Sevimli, S. et al. Right ventricular strain and strain rate properties in patients with right ventricular myocardial infarction. Echocardiography 24, 732-738 (2007).
125. Antoni, M. L. et al. Prognostic value of right ventricular function in patients after acute myocardial infarction treated with primary percutaneous coronary intervention. Circ. Cardiovasc. Imaging 3, 264-271 (2010).
126. Utsunomiya, H. et al. A simple method to predict impaired right ventricular performance and disease severity in chronic pulmonary hypertension using strain rate imaging. Int. J. Cardiol. 147, 88-94 (2011).
127. Fine, N. M. et al. Outcome prediction by quantitative right ventricular function assessment in 575 subjects evaluated for pulmonary hypertension. Circ. Cardiovasc. Imaging 6, 711-721 (2013).
128. Caso, P. et al. Atrial reservoir function by strain rate imaging in asymptomatic mitral stenosis: prognostic value at 3 year follow-up. Eur. J. Echocardiogr. 10, 753-759 (2009).
129. Kurt, M., Wang, J., Torre-Amione, G. & Nagueh, S. F. Left atrial function in diastolic heart failure. Circ. Cardiovasc. Imaging 2, 10-15 (2009).
130. Wakami, K. et al. Correlation between left ventricular end-diastolic pressure and peak left atrial wall strain during left ventricular systole. J. Am. Soc. Echocardiogr. 22, 847-851 (2009).
131. Cameli, M. et al. Left atrial longitudinal strain by speckle tracking echocardiography correlates well with left ventricular filling pressures in patients with heart failure. Cardiovasc. Ultrasound 8, 14 (2010).
132. Di Salvo, G. et al. Atrial myocardial deformation properties predict maintenance of sinus rhythm after external cardioversion of recent-onset lone atrial fibrillation: a color Doppler myocardial imaging and transthoracic and transesophageal echocardiographic study. Circulation 112, 387-395 (2005).
133. Schneider, C. et al. Strain rate imaging for functional quantification of the left atrium: atrial deformation predicts the maintenance of sinus rhythm after catheter ablation of atrial fibrillation. Eur. Heart J. 29, 1397-1409 (2008).
134. Obokata, M. et al. Left atrial strain provides incremental value for embolism risk stratification over CHA(2)DS(2)-VASc score and indicates prognostic impact in patients with atrial fibrillation. J. Am. Soc. Echocardiogr. 27, 709-716 (2014).
135. Buckberg, G. D. Basic science review: the helix and the heart. J. Thorac. Cardiovasc. Surg. 124, 863-883 (2002).
136. Sengupta, P. P., Tajik, A. J., Chandrasekaran, K. & Khandheria, B. K. Twist mechanics of the left ventricle: principles and application. JACC Cardiovasc. Imaging 1, 366-376 (2008).
137. Notomi, Y. et al. Measurement of ventricular torsion by two-dimensional ultrasound speckle tracking imaging. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 45, 2034-2041 (2005).
138. Helle-Valle, T. et al. New noninvasive method for assessment of left ventricular rotation: speckle tracking echocardiography. Circulation 112, 3149-3156 (2005).
139. Kanzaki, H. et al. Impaired systolic torsion in dilated cardiomyopathy: reversal of apical rotation at mid-systole characterized with magnetic resonance tagging method. Basic Res. Cardiol. 101, 465-470 (2006).
140. Tigen, K. et al. Left ventricular and atrial functions in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy patients with very high LVOT gradient: a speckle tracking echocardiographic study. Echocardiography 31, 833-841 (2014).
141. Zhang, H. J. et al. Assessment of left ventricular twist mechanics by speckle tracking echocardiography reveals association between LV twist and myocardial fibrosis in patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Int. J. Cardiovasc. Imaging (2014).
142. Porciani, M. C. et al. Rotational mechanics of the left ventricle in AL amyloidosis. Echocardiography 27, 1061-1068 (2010).
143. Cappelli, F. et al. Characteristics of left ventricular rotational mechanics in patients with systemic amyloidosis, systemic hypertension and normal left ventricular mass. Clin. Physiol. Funct. Imaging 31, 159-165 (2011).
144. Weyman, A. E. The year in echocardiography. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 49, 1212-1219 (2007).
145. Pellikka, P. A. et al. American Society of Echocardiography recommendations for performance, interpretation, and application of stress echocardiography. J. Am. Soc. Echocardiogr. 20, 1021-1041 (2007).
146. Sicari, R. et al. Stress echocardiography expert consensus statement: European Association of Echocardiography (EAE) (a registered branch of the ESC). Eur. J. Echocardiogr. 9, 415-437 (2008).
147. Marwick, T. H. Stress echocardiography. Heart 89, 113-118 (2003).
148. Salerno, M. & Beller, G. A. Noninvasive assessment of myocardial perfusion. Circ. Cardiovasc. Imaging 2, 412-424 (2009).
149. Bjornstad, K., al Amri, M., Lingamanaicker, J., Oqaili, I. & Hatle, L. Interobserver and intraobserver variation for analysis of left ventricular wall motion at baseline and during low-And high-dose dobutamine stress echocardiography in patients with high prevalence of wall motion abnormalities at rest. J. Am. Soc. Echocardiogr. 9, 320-328 (1996).
150. Fleischmann, K. E., Hunink, M. G., Kuntz, K. M. & Douglas, P. S. Exercise echocardiography or exercise SPECT imaging? A meta-Analysis of diagnostic test performance. JAMA 280, 913-920 (1998).
151. Marwick, T. H. et al. Exercise echocardiography is an accurate and cost-efficient technique for detection of coronary artery disease in women. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 26, 335-341 (1995).
152. Chung, G., Krishnamani, R. & Senior, R. Prognostic value of normal stress echocardiogram in patients with suspected coronary artery disease-A British general hospital experience. Int. J. Cardiol. 94, 181-186 (2004).
153. Bangalore, S., Gopinath, D., Yao, S. S. & Chaudhry, F. A. Risk stratification using stress echocardiography: incremental prognostic value over historic, clinical, and stress electrocardiographic variables across a wide spectrum of bayesian pretest probabilities for coronary artery disease. J. Am. Soc. Echocardiogr. 20, 244-252 (2007).
154. Hoffmann, R. et al. Refinements in stress echocardiographic techniques improve inter-institutional agreement in interpretation of dobutamine stress echocardiograms. Eur. Heart J. 23, 821-829 (2002).
155. Vukajlovic, D. et al. Contractile reserve assessed by dobutamine test identifies super-responders to cardiac resynchronization therapy. Arch. Med. Sci. 10, 684-691 (2014).
156. Hanekom, L., Cho, G. Y., Leano, R., Jeffriess, L. & Marwick, T. H. Comparison of two-dimensional speckle and tissue Doppler strain measurement during dobutamine stress echocardiography: an angiographic correlation. Eur. Heart J. 28, 1765-1772 (2007).
157. Ingul, C. B. et al. Automated analysis of myocardial deformation at dobutamine stress echocardiography: an angiographic validation. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 49, 1651-1659 (2007).
158. Hwang, H. J. et al. The value of assessing myocardial deformation at recovery after dobutamine stress echocardiography. J. Cardiovasc. Ultrasound 22, 127-133 (2014).
159. Asrar ul Haq, M. et al. Left ventricular torsional dynamics post exercise for LV diastolic function assessment. Cardiovasc. Ultrasound 12, 8 (2014).
160. Zile, M. R. & Brutsaert, D. L. New concepts in diastolic dysfunction and diastolic heart failure: Part I: diagnosis, prognosis, and measurements of diastolic function. Circulation 105, 1387-1393 (2002).
161. Oh, J. K. Echocardiography as a noninvasive Swan-Ganz catheter. Circulation 111, 3192-3194 (2005).
162. Maron, M. S. et al. Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy is predominantly a disease of left ventricular outflow tract obstruction. Circulation 114, 2232-2239 (2006).
163. Elliott, P. M. et al. Left ventricular outflow tract obstruction and sudden death risk in patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Eur. Heart J. 27, 1933-1941 (2006).
164. Shah, J. S. et al. Prevalence of exercise-induced left ventricular outflow tract obstruction in symptomatic patients with non-obstructive hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Heart 94, 1288-1294 (2008).
165. Argulian, E. & Chaudhry, F. A. Stress testing in patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Prog. Cardiovasc. Dis. 54, 477-482 (2012).
166. Henri, C. et al. Exercise testing and stress imaging in valvular heart disease. Can. J. Cardiol. 30, 1012-1026 (2014).
167. Monin, J. L. et al. Low-gradient aortic stenosis: operative risk stratification and predictors for long-Term outcome: a multicenter study using dobutamine stress hemodynamics. Circulation 108, 319-324 (2003).
168. Lancellotti, P. et al. Prognostic importance of quantitative exercise Doppler echocardiography in asymptomatic valvular aortic stenosis. Circulation 112 (Suppl. I), I377-I382 (2005).
169. Lee, R. & Marwick, T. H. Assessment of subclinical left ventricular dysfunction in asymptomatic mitral regurgitation. Eur. J. Echocardiogr. 8, 175-184 (2007).
170. Haluska, B. A., Short, L. & Marwick, T. H. Relationship of ventricular longitudinal function to contractile reserve in patients with mitral regurgitation. Am. Heart J. 146, 183-188 (2003).
171. Lancellotti, P. et al. Importance of left ventricular longitudinal function and functional reserve in patients with degenerative mitral regurgitation: assessment by two-dimensional speckle tracking. J. Am. Soc. Echocardiogr. 21, 1331-1336 (2008).
172. Stewart, M. J. Contrast echocardiography. Heart 89, 342-348 (2003).
173. Senior, R. et al. Contrast echocardiography: evidence-based recommendations by European Association of Echocardiography. Eur. J. Echocardiogr. 10, 194-212 (2009).
174. Malm, S., Frigstad, S., Sagberg, E., Larsson, H. & Skjaerpe, T. Accurate and reproducible measurement of left ventricular volume and ejection fraction by contrast echocardiography: a comparison with magnetic resonance imaging. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 44, 1030-1035 (2004).
175. Marwick, T. H. et al. Accuracy and feasibility of contrast echocardiography for detection of perfusion defects in routine practice: comparison with wall motion and technetium-99m sestamibi single-photon emission computed tomography. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 32, 1260-1269 (1998).
176. Al-Mansour, H. A., Mulvagh, S. L., Pumper, G. M., Klarich, K. W. & Foley, D. A. Usefulness of harmonic imaging for left ventricular opacification and endocardial border delineation by optison. Am. J. Cardiol. 85, 795-799 (2000).
177. Rainbird, A. J. et al. Contrast dobutamine stress echocardiography: clinical practice assessment in 300 consecutive patients. J. Am. Soc. Echocardiogr. 14, 378-385 (2001).
178. Plana, J. C. et al. A randomized cross-over study for evaluation of the effect of image optimization with contrast on the diagnostic accuracy of dobutamine echocardiography in coronary artery disease The OPTIMIZE Trial. JACC Cardiovasc. Imaging 1, 145-152 (2008).
179. Kaul, S. Myocardial contrast echocardiography: a 25-year retrospective. Circulation 118, 291-308 (2008).
180. Moir, S., Haluska, B. A., Jenkins, C., Fathi, R. & Marwick, T. H. Incremental benefit of myocardial contrast to combined dipyridamole-exercise stress echocardiography for the assessment of coronary artery disease. Circulation 110, 1108-1113 (2004).
181. Shah, B. N. et al. The feasibility and clinical utility of myocardial contrast echocardiography in clinical practice: results from the incorporation of myocardial perfusion assessment into clinical testing with stress echocardiography study. J. Am. Soc. Echocardiogr. 27, 520-530 (2014).
182. Porter, T. R. et al. Patient outcome following 2 different stress imaging approaches: a prospective randomized comparison. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 61, 2446-2455 (2013).
183. Hung, J. et al. 3D echocardiography: a review of the current status and future directions. J. Am. Soc. Echocardiogr. 20, 213-233 (2007).
184. Lang, R. M., Mor-Avi, V., Sugeng, L., Nieman, P. S. & Sahn, D. J. Three-dimensional echocardiography: the benefits of the additional dimension. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 48, 2053-2069 (2006).
185. Jenkins, C., Bricknell, K., Hanekom, L. & Marwick, T. H. Reproducibility and accuracy of echocardiographic measurements of left ventricular parameters using real-Time three-dimensional echocardiography. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 44, 878-886 (2004).
186. Jenkins, C. et al. Left ventricular volume measurement with echocardiography: a comparison of left ventricular opacification, three-dimensional echocardiography, or both with magnetic resonance imaging. Eur. Heart J. 30, 98-106 (2009).
187. Stanton, T., Jenkins, C., Haluska, B. A. & Marwick, T. H. Association of outcome with left ventricular parameters measured by two-dimensional and three-dimensional echocardiography in patients at high cardiovascular risk. J. Am. Soc. Echocardiogr. 27, 65-73 (2014).
188. Ahmad, M., Xie, T., McCulloch, M., Abreo, G. & Runge, M. Real-Time three-dimensional dobutamine stress echocardiography in assessment stress echocardiography in assessment of ischemia: comparison with two-dimensional dobutamine stress echocardiography. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 37, 1303-1309 (2001).
189. Matsumura, Y. et al. Non-invasive assessment of myocardial ischaemia using new real-Time three-dimensional dobutamine stress echocardiography: comparison with conventional two-dimensional methods. Eur. Heart J. 26, 1625-1632 (2005).
190. Caiani, E. G. et al. Improved quantification of left ventricular mass based on endocardial and epicardial surface detection with real time three dimensional echocardiography. Heart 92, 213-219 (2006).
191. Mor-Avi, V. et al. Real-Time 3-dimensional echocardiographic quantification of left ventricular volumes: multicenter study for validation with magnetic resonance imaging and investigation of sources of error. JACC Cardiovasc. Imaging 1, 413-423 (2008).
192. Niemann, P. S. et al. Anatomically oriented right ventricular volume measurements with dynamic three-dimensional echocardiography validated by 3-Tesla magnetic resonance imaging. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 50, 1668-1676 (2007).
193. Sugeng, L. et al. Multimodality comparison of quantitative volumetric analysis of the right ventricle. JACC Cardiovasc. Imaging 3, 10-18 (2010).
194. Bussadori, C. et al. Evaluation of right ventricular function in adults with congenital heart defects. Echocardiography 32 (Suppl. 1), S38-S52 (2015).
195. Lang, R. M. et al. EAE/ASE recommendations for image acquisition and display using three-dimensional echocardiography. Eur. Heart J. Cardiovasc. Imaging 13, 1-46 (2012).
196. Lang, R. M., Tsang, W., Weinert, L., Mor-Avi, V. & Chandra, S. Valvular heart disease. The value of 3-dimensional echocardiography. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 58, 1933-1944 (2011).
197. Watanabe, N. et al. Quantitation of mitral valve tenting in ischemic mitral regurgitation by transthoracic real-Time three-dimensional echocardiography. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 45, 763-769 (2005).
198. Mannaerts, H. F., Kamp, O. & Visser, C. A. Should mitral valve area assessment in patients with mitral stenosis be based on anatomical or on functional evaluation? A plea for 3D echocardiography as the new clinical standard. Eur. Heart J. 25, 2073-2074 (2004).
199. Saura, D. et al. Aortic valve stenosis planimetry by means of three-dimensional transesophageal echocardiography in the real clinical setting: feasibility, reliability and systematic deviations. Echocardiography 32, 508-515 (2014).
200. Buechel, R. R. et al. Head-To-head comparison of two-dimensional and three-dimensional echocardiographic methods for left atrial chamber quantification with magnetic resonance imaging. J. Am. Soc. Echocardiogr. 26, 428-435 (2013).
201. Mor-Avi, V. et al. Real-Time 3D echocardiographic quantification of left atrial volume: multicenter study for validation with CMR. JACC Cardiovasc. Imaging 5, 769-777 (2012).
202. Wu, V. C. et al. Prognostic value of LA volumes assessed by transthoracic 3D echocardiography: comparison with 2D echocardiography. JACC Cardiovasc. Imaging 6, 1025-1035 (2013).
203. Montserrat, S. et al. Left atrial size and function by three-dimensional echocardiography to predict arrhythmia recurrence after first and repeated ablation of atrial fibrillation. Eur. Heart J. Cardiovasc. Imaging 15, 515-522 (2014).
204. Seo, Y., Ishizu, T., Atsumi, A., Kawamura, R. & Aonuma, K. Three-dimensional speckle tracking echocardiography. Circ. J. 78, 1290-1301 (2014).
205. Altman, M. et al. Assessment of left ventricular systolic function by deformation imaging derived from speckle tracking: a comparison between 2D and 3D echo modalities. Eur. Heart J. Cardiovasc. Imaging 15, 316-323 (2014).
206. Xu, T. Y. et al. Three-dimensional speckle strain echocardiography is more accurate and efficient than 2D strain in the evaluation of left ventricular function. Int. J. Cardiol. 176, 360-366 (2014).
207. Yu, H. K. et al. Right ventricular mechanics in adults after surgical repair of tetralogy of fallot: insights from three-dimensional speckle-Tracking echocardiography. J. Am. Soc. Echocardiogr. 27, 423-429 (2014).
208. Smith, B. C. et al. Three-dimensional speckle tracking of the right ventricle: toward optimal quantification of right ventricular dysfunction in pulmonary hypertension. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 64, 41-51 (2014).