Is duration of illness really influencing outcome in major psychoses?

Nordic Journal of Psychiatry

Volumn 69, Issue 6, 2015, Pages 1685-1699

  Altamura, Alfredo Carlo ^a   Serati, Marta ^a   Buoli, Massimiliano ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MILAN   (Italy)

Author keywords

Duration of illness (DI); Major psychoses (MP); Outcome

Indexed keywords

ALLOPURINOL; ESCITALOPRAM; FLUPENTIXOL DECANOATE; FLUPHENAZINE; FLUPHENAZINE DECANOATE; GABAPENTIN; HALOPERIDOL; HALOPERIDOL DECANOATE; LITHIUM; OLANZAPINE; RISPERIDONE; VALPROIC ACID;

ARTICLE; BIPOLAR DISORDER; COGNITION; COGNITIVE DEFECT; DISEASE DURATION; HOSPITALIZATION; HUMAN; INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENT; MAJOR DEPRESSION; MAJOR PSYCHOSIS; MANIA; NEGATIVE SYNDROME; ONSET AGE; POSITIVE SYNDROME; PSYCHOSIS; QUALITY OF LIFE; RELAPSE; REMISSION; SCHIZOPHRENIA; SOCIAL COGNITION; SOCIAL INTERACTION; SUBSTANCE ABUSE; SUICIDE ATTEMPT; TREATMENT RESPONSE; WISCONSIN CARD SORTING TEST; ADOLESCENT; ADULT; COGNITION DISORDERS; DEPRESSIVE DISORDER, MAJOR; MALE; PROGNOSIS; PSYCHOLOGY; PSYCHOTIC DISORDERS; SOCIAL ADAPTATION; SUICIDAL IDEATION; TREATMENT OUTCOME;

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; BIPOLAR DISORDER; COGNITION DISORDERS; DEPRESSIVE DISORDER, MAJOR; HUMANS; MALE; PROGNOSIS; PSYCHOTIC DISORDERS; SCHIZOPHRENIA; SCHIZOPHRENIC PSYCHOLOGY; SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT; SUICIDAL IDEATION; TREATMENT OUTCOME;

EID: 84931834710     PISSN: 08039488     EISSN: 15024725     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3109/08039488.2014.990919     Document Type: Article

References (176)

1. Breitborde NJ, Srihari VH, Woods SW. Review of the operational definition for first-episode psychosis. Early Interv Psychiatry 2009;3:259-65.
2. Altamura AC, Buoli M, Serati M. Duration of illness and duration of untreated illness in relation to drug response in psychiatric disorders. Neuropsychiatry 2011;1:81-90.
3. Arango C, Breier A, McMahon R, Carpenter WT Jr, Buchanan RW. The relationship of clozapine and haloperidol treatment response to prefrontal, hippocampal, and caudate brain volumes. Am J Psychiatry 2003;160:1421-7.
4. Coyle JT. The glutamatergic dysfunction hypothesis for schizophrenia. Harv Rev Psychiatry 1996;3:241-53.
5. Matsuo T, Izumi Y, Kume T, Takada-Takatori Y, Sawada H, Akaike A. Protective effect of aripiprazole against glutamate cytotoxicity in dopaminergic neurons of rat mesencephalic cultures. Neurosci Lett 2010;481:78-81.
6. Altamura AC, Bobo WV, Meltzer HY. Factors affecting outcome in schizophrenia and their relevance for psychopharmacological treatment. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 2007;22:249-67.
7. Altamura AC, Buoli M, Pozzoli S. Role of immunological factors in the pathophysiology and diagnosis of bipolar disorder: Comparison with schizophrenia. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2014;68:21-36.
8. Skeppar P, Thoor R, Agren S, Isaksson A, Skeppar I, Persson B, et al. Neurodevelopmental disorders with comorbid affective disorders sometimes produce psychiatric conditions traditionally diagnosed as schizophrenia. Clinical Neuropsychiatry 2013;3-4:123-133.
9. Henn FA, Braus DF. Structural neuroimaging in schizophrenia. An integrative view of neuromorphology. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 1999;249:48-56.
10. Andreasen NC. The lifetime trajectory of schizophrenia and the concept of neurodevelopment. Dialogues Clin Neurosci 2010;12:409-15.
11. Cookson J. Use of antipsychotic drugs and lithium in mania. Br J Psychiatry 2001;178:148-56.
12. van Haren NE, Hulshoff Pol HE, Schnack HG, Cahn W, Mandl RC, Collins DL, et al. Focal gray matter changes in schizophrenia across the course of the illness: A 5-year follow-up study. Neuropsychopharmacology 2007;32:2057-66.
13. van Haren NE, Schnack HG, Cahn W, van den Heuvel MP, Lepage C, Collins L, et al. Changes in cortical thickness during the course of illness in schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2011;68:871-80.
14. Ho BC, Andreasen NC, Ziebell S, Pierson R, Magnotta V. Long-term antipsychotic treatment and brain volumes: A longitudinal study of first-episode schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2011;68:128-37.
15. Brousse G, Meary A, Blanc O, Lançon C, Llorca PM, Leboyer M. Clinical predictors of response to olanzapine or risperidone during acute episode of schizophrenia. Psychiatry Res 2010;179:12-8.
16. Goldberg JF. Optimizing treatment outcomes in bipolar disorder under ordinary conditions. J Clin Psychiatry 2008;69:11-9.
17. Lo WH, Lo T. A ten-year follow-up study of Chinese schizophrenics in Hong Kong. Br J Psychiatry 1977;131:63-6.
18. Tsoi WF, Wong KE. A 15-year follow-up study of Chinese schizophrenic patients. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1991;84:217-20.
19. Tsoi WF, Kua EH. Predicting the outcome of schizophrenia ten years later. Aust N Z J Psychiatry 1992;26:257-61.
20. Rabiner CJ, Wegner JT, Kane JM. Outcome study of first-episode psychosis. I: Relapse rates after 1 year. Am J Psychiatry 1986;143:1155-8.
21. San L, Bernardo M, Gómez A, Peña M. Factors associated with relapse in patients with schizophrenia. Int J Psychiatry Clin Pract 2013;17:2-9.
22. Loebel AD, Lieberman JA, Alvir JM, Mayerhoff DI, Geisler SH, Szymanski SR. Duration of psychosis and outcome in first-episode schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 1992;149:1183-8.
23. Verghese A, John JK, Rajkumar S, Richard J, Sethi BB, Trivedi JK. Factors associated with the course and outcome of schizophrenia in India. Results of a two-year multicentre follow-up study. Br J Psychiatry 1980;154:499-503.
24. Ran M, Xiang M, Huang M, Shan Y. Natural course of schizophrenia: 2-year follow-up study in a rural Chinese community. Br J Psychiatry 2001;178:154-8.
25. Bottlender R, Strauss A, Möller HJ. Impact of duration of symptoms prior to first hospitalization on acute outcome in 998 schizophrenic patients. Schizophr Res 2000;44:145-50.
26. Bottlender R, Jäger M, Groll C, Strauss A, Möller HJ. Deficit states in schizophrenia and their association with the length of illness and gender. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2001;251:272-8.
27. Jonsson H, Nyman AK. Prediction of outcome in schizophrenia. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1984;69:274-91.
28. Jonsson H, Nyman AK. Predicting long-term outcome in schizophrenia. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1991;83:342-6.
29. Szymanski SR, Cannon TD, Gallacher F, Erwin RJ, Gur RE. Course of treatment response in first-episode and chronic schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 1996;153:519-25.
30. Schennach-Wolff R, Meyer S, Seemüller F, Jäger M, Schmauss M, Laux G, Pfeiffer H, et al. Influencing factors and predictors of early improvement in the acute treatment of schizophrenia and schizophrenia spectrum disorder. J Psychiatr Res 2011;45:1639-47.
31. Coryell W, Tsuang MT. DSM-III schizophreniform disorder. Comparisons with schizophrenia and affective disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1982;39:66-9.
32. Robinson DG, Woerner MG, McMeniman M, Mendelowitz A, Bilder RM. Symptomatic and functional recovery from a first episode of schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder. Am J Psychiatry 2004;161:473-9.
33. Torgalsbøen AK. Full recovery from schizophrenia: The prognostic role of premorbid adjustment, symptoms at first admission, precipitating events and gender. Psychiatry Res 1999;88:143-52.
34. Kolakowska T, Williams AO, Ardern M, Reveley MA, Jambor K, Gelder MG, et al. Schizophrenia with good and poor outcome. I: Early clinical features, response to neuroleptics and signs of organic dysfunction. Br J Psychiatry 1985; 146: 229-39.
35. Cantwell R; Scottish Comorbidity Study Group. Substance use and schizophrenia: Effects on symptoms, social functioning and service use. Br J Psychiatry 2003;182:324-9.
36. Pokorny AD, Kaplan HB, Lorimor RJ. Effects of diagnosis and treatment history on relapse of psychiatric patients. Am J Psychiatry 1983;140:1598-601.
37. Johnson DA, Malik NA. A double-blind comparison of fluphenazine decanoate and flupenthixol decanoate in the treatment of acute schizophrenia. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1975;51:257-67
38. Itoh H, Yagi G, Fujii Y, Iwamura K, Ichikawa K. The relationship between haloperidol blood levels and clinical responses. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 1984;8:285-92.
39. Bareggi SR, Mauri M, Cavallaro R, Regazzetti MG, Moro AR. Factors affecting the clinical response to haloperidol therapy in schizophrenia. Clin Neuropharmacol 1990;13:S29-34.
40. Crow TJ, MacMillan JF, Johnson AL, Johnstone EC. A randomised controlled trial of prophylactic neuroleptic treatment. Br J Psychiatry 1986;148:120-7.
41. Meltzer HY, Sommers AA, Luchins DJ. The effect of neuroleptics and other psychotropic drugs on negative symptoms in schizophrenia. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1986;6:329-38.
42. Lieberman JA, Kane JM, Safferman AZ, Pollack S, Howard A, Szymanski S, et al. Predictors of response to clozapine. J Clin Psychiatry 1994;55:126-8.
43. Brunstein MG, Ghisolfi ES, Ramos FL, Lara DR. A clinical trial of adjuvant allopurinol therapy for moderately refractory schizophrenia. J Clin Psychiatry 2005;66:213-9.
44. McEvoy JP, Schooler NR, Wilson WH. Predictors of therapeutic response to haloperidol in acute schizophrenia. Psychopharmacol Bull 1991;27:97-101.
45. Weinmann S, Janssen B, Gaebel W. Switching antipsychotics in inpatient schizophrenia care: Predictors and outcomes. J Clin Psychiatry 2004;65:1099-105.
46. Levinson DF, Simpson GM, Singh H, Yadalam K, Jain A, Stephanos MJ, et al. Fluphenazine dose, clinical response, and extrapyramidal symptoms during acute treatment. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1190;47:761-8.
47. Levinson DF, Simpson GM, Lo ES. Fluphenazine plasma levels, dosage, efficacy, and side effects. Am J Psychiatry 1995;152:765-71.
48. Chanpattana W, Chakrabhand ML. Combined ECT and neuroleptic therapy in treatment-refractory schizophrenia: Prediction of outcome. Psychiatry Res 2001;105:107-15.
49. Borkowska A, Rybakowski J. Factors connected with the effect of risperidone on psychopathological symptoms and working memory in schizophrenia. Psychiatr Pol 2002;36:225-33.
50. Lane HY, Chang YC, Chiu CC, Lee SH, Lin CY, Chang WH. Fine-tuning risperidone dosage for acutely exacerbated schizophrenia: Clinical determinants. Psychopharmacology 2004;172:393-9.
51. Riedel M, Schwarz MJ, Strassnig M, Spellmann I, Müller-Arends A, Weber K, et al. Risperidone plasma levels, clinical response and side-effects. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2005;255:261-8.
52. Keck PE Jr, Wilson DR, Strakowski SM, McElroy SL, Kizer DL, Balistreri TM, et al. Clinical predictors of acute risperidone response in schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder, and psychotic mood disorders. J Clin Psychiatry 1995;56:466-70.
53. Novick D, Ascher-Svanum H, Brugnoli R, Bertsch J, Hong J, Haro JM. Antipsychotic monotherapy and polypharmacy in the treatment of outpatients with schizophrenia in the European schizophrenia outpatient health outcomes study. J Nerv Ment Dis 2012;200:637-43.
54. Buoli M, Caldiroli A, Panza G, Altamura AC. Prominent clinical dimension, duration of illness and treatment response in schizophrenia: A naturalistic study. Psychiatry Investig 2012;9:354-60.
55. Teo C, Borlido C, Kennedy JL, De Luca V. The role of ethnicity in treatment refractory schizophrenia. Compr Psychiatry 2013;54:167-72.
56. Magliano L, Fiorillo A, Guarneri M, Marasco C, De Rosa C, Malangone C, et al. Prescription of psychotropic drugs to patients with schizophrenia: An Italian national survey. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 2004;60:513-22.
57. Sim K, Su A, Ungvari GS, Fujii S, Yang SY, Chong MY, et al. Depot antipsychotic use in schizophrenia: An East Asian perspective. Hum Psychopharmacol 2004;19:103-9.
58. Taylor DM, Fischetti C, Sparshatt A, Thomas A, Bishara D, Cornelius V. Risperidone long-acting injection: A prospective 3-year analysis of its use in clinical practice. J Clin Psychiatry 2009;70:196-200.
59. Altamura CA, Colacurcio F, Mauri MC, Moro AR, De Novellis F. Haloperidol decanoate in chronic schizophrenia: A study of 12 months with plasma levels. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 1990;14:25-35.
60. Stankovi Z, Ille T. Adherence to depot versus oral antipsychotic medication in schizophrenic patients during the long-term therapy. Vojnosanit Pregl 2013;70:267-73.
61. Dodwell D, Goldberg D. A study of factors associated with response to electroconvulsive therapy in patients with schizophrenic symptoms. Br J Psychiatry 1989;154:635-9.
62. Ferreri M, Rouillon F, Nuss P, Bazin N, Farah S, Djaballah K, et al. What information do patients with schizophrenia have about their illness and treatment? Encephale 2000;26:30-8.
63. Hofer A, Rettenbacher MA, Edlinger M, Kemmler G, Widschwendter CG, Fleischhacker WW. Subjective response and attitudes toward antipsychotic drug therapy during the initial treatment period: A prospective follow-up study in patients with schizophrenia. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2007;116:354-61.
64. Linden M, Godemann F, Gaebel W, Köpke W, Müller P, Müller-Spahn F, et al. A prospective study of factors influencing adherence to a continuous neuroleptic treatment program in schizophrenia patients during 2 years. Schizophr Bull 2001;27:585-96.
65. Resch F, Strobl R. Suicide in schizophrenic patients. Psychiatr Prax 1989;16:136-40.
66. Kua J, Wong KE, Kua EH, Tsoi WF. A 20-year follow-up study on schizophrenia in Singapore. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2003;108:118-25.
67. Tarrier N, Barrowclough C, Andrews B, Gregg L. Risk of nonfatal suicide ideation and behaviour in recent onset schizophrenia - the influence of clinical, social, self-esteem and demographic factors. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 2004;39:927-37.
68. Pompili M, Mancinelli I, Ruberto A, Kotzalidis GD, Girardi P, Tatarelli R. Where schizophrenic patients commit suicide: A review of suicide among inpatients and former inpatients. Int J Psychiatry Med 2005;35:171-90.
69. Limosin F, Loze JY, Philippe A, Casadebaig F, Rouillon F. Ten-year prospective follow-up study of the mortality by suicide in schizophrenic patients. Schizophr Res 2007;94:23-8.
70. Loas G, Azi A, Noisette C, Legrand A, Yon V. Fourteen-year prospective follow-up study of positive and negative symptoms in chronic schizophrenic patients dying from suicide compared to other causes of death. Psychopathology 2009;42:185-9.
71. Bralet MC, Yon V, Loas G, Noisette C. Cause of mortality in schizophrenic patients: Prospective study of years of a cohort of 150 chronic schizophrenic patients. Encephale 2000;26:32-41.
72. Salokangas RK, Honkonen T, Stengård E, Koivisto AM. Mortality in chronic Schizophrenia during decreasing number of psychiatric beds in Finland. Schizophr Res 2002;54:265-75.
73. Harkavy-Friedman JM, Restifo K, Malaspina D, Kaufmann CA, Amador XF, Yale SA, et al. Suicidal behavior in schizophrenia: Characteristics of individuals who had and had not attempted suicide. Am J Psychiatry 1999;156:1276-8.
74. Pillmann F, Balzuweit S, Haring A, Blöink R, Marneros A. Suicidal behavior in acute and transient psychotic disorders. Psychiatry Res 2003;117:199-209.
75. Milech U, Böning J, Classen W. Performance-psychologic cross-sectional study of young schizophrenic patients with a subchronic and chronic disease course. Psychiatr Neurol Med Psychol 1990;42:385-93.
76. Løberg EM, Jørgensen HA, Green MF, Rund BR, Lund A, Diseth A, et al. Positive symptoms and duration of illness predict functional laterality and attention modulation in schizophrenia. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2006;113:322-31.
77. Cuesta MJ, Peralta V, Zarzuela A. Illness duration and neuropsychological impairments in schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 1998;33:141-50.
78. Irani F, Kalkstein S, Moberg EA, Moberg PJ. Neuropsychological performance in older patients with schizophrenia: A meta-analysis of cross-sectional and longitudinal studies. Schizophr Bull 2011;37:1318-26.
79. Seidman LJ, Lanca M, Kremen WS, Faraone SV, Tsuang MT. Organizational and visual memory deficits in schizophrenia and bipolar psychoses using the Rey-Osterrieth complex figure: Effects of duration of illness. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 2003;25:949-64.
80. Lindström E, von Knorring L. Symptoms in schizophrenic syndromes in relation to age, sex, duration of illness and number of previous hospitalizations. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1994;89:274-8.
81. Hugdahl K, Rund BR, Lund A, Asbjørnsen A, Egeland J, Landrø NI, et al. Attentional and executive dysfunctions in schizophrenia and depression: Evidence from dichotic listening performance. Biol Psychiatry 2003;53:609-16.
82. Keefe RS, Seidman LJ, Christensen BK Hamer RM, Sharma T, Sitskoorn MM, et al. Comparative effect of atypical and conventional antipsychotic drugs on neurocognition in first-episode psychosis: A randomized, double-blind trial of olanzapine versus low doses of haloperidol. Am J Psychiatry 2004;161:985-95.
83. Heaton R, Paulsen JS, McAdams LA, Kuck J, Zisook S, Braff D, et al. Neuropsychological deficits in schizophrenics. Relationship to age, chronicity, and dementia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1994;51:469-76.
84. Hyde TM, Nawroz S, Goldberg TE, Bigelow LB, Strong D, Ostrem JL, et al. Is there a cognitive decline in schizophrenia? A cross-sectional study. Br J Psychiatry 1994;164:494-500.
85. Verdoux H, Liraud F. Neuropsychological function in subjects with psychotic and affective disorders. Relationship to diagnostic category and duration of illness. Eur Psychiatry 2000;15:236-43.
86. Chen EY, Lam LC, Chen RY, Nguyen DG, Chan CK. Prefrontal neuropsychological impairment and illness duration in schizophrenia: A study of 204 patients in Hong Kong. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1996;93:144-50.
87. Tracy JI, De Leon J, Doonan R, Musciente J, Ballas T, Josiassen RC. Clock drawing in schizophrenia. Psychol Rep 1996;79:923-8.
88. Sheitman BB, Murray MG, Snyder JA Silva S, Goldman R, Chakos M, et al. IQ scores of treatment-resistant schizophrenic patients before and after the onset of the illness. Schizophr Res 2000;46:203-7.
89. Raffard S, Bayard S. Understanding the executive functioning heterogeneity in schizophrenia. Brain Cogn 2012;79:60-9.
90. Cella M, Wykes T. Understanding processing speed - its subcomponents and their relationship to characteristics of people with schizophrenia. Cogn Neuropsychiatry 2013;18:437-51.
91. Savla GN, Vella L, Armstrong CC, Penn DL, Twamley EW. Deficits in domains of social cognition in schizophrenia: A meta-analysis of the empirical evidence. Schizophr Bull 2013;39:979-92.
92. Hegde S, Thirthalli J, Rao SL, Raguram A, Philip M, Gangadhar BN. Cognitive deficits and its relation with psychopathology and global functioning in first episode schizophrenia. Asian J Psychiatr 2013;6:537-43.
93. Simon J, Anand P, Gray A, Rugkåsa J, Yeeles K, Burns T. Operationalising the capability approach for outcome measurement in mental health research. Soc Sci Med 2003;98:187-96.
94. Alonso J, Croudace T, Brown J, Gasquet I, Knapp MR, Suárez D, et al. Health-related quality of life (HRQL) and continuous antipsychotic treatment: 3-year results from the Schizophrenia Health Outcomes (SOHO) study. Value Health 2009;12:536-43.
95. Ojeda N, Sánchez P, Peña J, Elizagárate E, Yoller AB, Gutiérrez-Fraile M, et al. An explanatory model of quality of life in schizophrenia: The role of processing speed and negative symptoms. Actas Esp Psiquiatr 2012;40:10-8.
96. Fujimaki K, Morinobu S, Yamashita H, Takahashi T, Yamawaki S. Predictors of quality of life in inpatients with schizophrenia. Psychiatry Res 2012;197:199-205.
97. Haro JM, Novick D, Suarez D, Alonso J, Lépine JP, Ratcliffe M; SOHO Study Group. Remission and relapse in the outpatient care of schizophrenia: Three-year results from the schizophrenia Outpatient Health Outcomes study. J Clin Psychopharmacol 2006;26:571-8.
98. Haro JM, Novick D, Suarez D, Ochoa S, Roca M. Predictors of the course of illness in outpatients with schizophrenia: A prospective three year study. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2008;32:1287-92.
99. Usall J, Haro JM, Ochoa S, Márquez M, Araya S. Needs of patients with schizophrenia group. Influence of gender on social outcome in schizophrenia. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2002;106:337-42.
100. Siegel SJ, Irani F, Brensinger CM, Kohler CG, Bilker WB, Ragland JD, et al. Prognostic variables at intake and long-term level of function in schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 2006;163:433-41.
101. Schennach-Wolff R, Jäger M, Seemüller F, Obermeier M, Messer T, Laux G, et al. Defining and predicting functional outcome in schizophrenia and schizophrenia spectrum disorders. Schizophr Res 2009;113:210-7.
102. Suresh KK, Kumar CN, Thirthalli J, Bijjal S, Venkatesh BK, Arunachala U, et al. Work functioning of schizophrenia patients in a rural south Indian community: Status at 4-year follow-up. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 2012;47:1865-71
103. Browne S, Roe M, Lane A, Gervin M, Morris M, Kinsella A, et al. Quality of life in schizophrenia: Relationship to sociodemo-graphic factors, symptomatology and tardive dyskinesia. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1996;94:118-24.
104. Menezes PR, Rodrigues LC, Mann AH. Predictors of clinical and social outcomes after hospitalization in schizophrenia. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 1997;247:137-45.
105. Foo TW, Hoo TK. Selection of chronic schizophrenic patients for rehabilitation. J Clin Epidemiol 1988;41:883-7.
106. Bowie CR, Grossman M, Gupta M, Oyewumi LK, Harvey PD. Cognitive remediation in schizophrenia: Efficacy and effectiveness in patients with early versus long-term course of illness. Early Interv Psychiatry 2014;8:32-8.
107. Trompenaars FJ, Masthoff ED, Van Heck GL, De Vries J, Hodiamont PP. Relationships between social functioning and quality of life in a population of Dutch adult psychiatric outpatients. Int J Soc Psychiatry 2007;53:36-47.
108. Štrkalj-Ivezi S, Vrdoljak M, Mužini L, Agius M. The impact of a rehabilitation day centre program for persons suffering from schizophrenia on quality of life, social functioning and self-esteem. Psychiatr Danub 2013;25:S194-9.
109. Rosen LN, Rosenthal NE, Dunner DL, Fieve RR. Social outcome compared in psychotic and nonpsychotic bipolar I patients. J Nerv Ment Dis 1983;171:272-5.
110. Maj M, Magliano L, Pirozzi R, Marasco C, Guarneri M. Validity of rapid cycling as a course specifier for bipolar disorder. Am J Psychiatry 1994;151:1015-9.
111. Kupka RW, Luckenbaugh DA, Post RM, Suppes T, Altshuler LL, Keck PE Jr, et al. Comparison of rapid-cycling and non-rapid-cycling bipolar disorder based on prospective mood ratings in 539 outpatients. Am J Psychiatry 2005;162:1273-80.
112. Azorin JM, Kaladjian A, Adida M, Hantouche EG, Hameg A, Lancrenon S, et al. Factors associated with rapid cycling in bipolar I manic patients: Findings from a French national study. CNS Spectr 2008;13:780-7.
113. Kim B, Kim S, McIntyre RS, Park HJ, Kim SY, Joo YH. Correlates of metabolic abnormalities in bipolar I disorder at initiation of acute phase treatment. Psychiatry Investig 2009;6:78-84.
114. Maina G, D ' Ambrosio V, Aguglia A, Paschetta E, Salvi V, Bogetto F. Bipolar Disorder and metabolic syndrome: A clinical study in 185 patients. Riv Psichiatr 2010;45:34-40.
115. McElroy SL, Keck PE Jr, Pope HG Jr, Hudson JI, Morris D. Correlates of antimanic response to valproate. Psychopharmacol Bull 1991;27:127-33.
116. Keck PE Jr, McElroy SL, Strakowski SM, West SA, Sax KW, Hawkins JM, et al. 12-month outcome of patients with bipolar disorder following hospitalization for a manic or mixed episode. Am J Psychiatry 1998;155:646-52.
117. Birmaher B, Axelson D, Goldstein B, Strober M, Gill MK, Hunt J, et al. Four-year longitudinal course of children and adolescents with bipolar spectrum disorders: The Course and Outcome of Bipolar Youth (COBY) study. Am J Psychiatry 2009;166:795-804.
118. Zarate CA Jr, Narendran R, Tohen M, Greaney JJ, Berman A, Pike S, et al. Clinical predictors of acute response with olanzapine in psychotic mood disorders. J Clin Psychiatry 1998;59:24-8.
119. Obrocea GV, Dunn RM, Frye MA, Greaney JJ, Berman A, Pike S, et al. Clinical predictors of response to lamotrigine and gabapentin monotherapy in refractory affective disorders. Biol Psychiatry 2002;51:253-60
120. Maj M, Pirozzi R, Magliano L. Late non-response to lithium prophylaxis in bipolar patients: Prevalence and predictors. J Affect Disord 1996;39:39-42.
121. Grof P. Response to long-term lithium treatment: Research studies and clinical implications. In: Davis JM, Maas JW, editors. The affective disorders. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press; 1983. p. 357-366.
122. Mander AJ. Clinical prediction of outcome and lithium response in bipolar affective disorder. J Affect Disord 1986;11:35-41.
123. Wang PW, Santosa C, Schumacher M, Winsberg ME, Strong C, Ketter TA. Gabapentin augmentation therapy in bipolar depression. Bipolar Disord 2002;4:296-301.
124. Moon E, Chang JS, Kim MY, Seo MH, Cha B, Ha TH, et al. Dropout rate and associated factors in patients with bipolar disorders. J Affect Disord 2012;141:47-54.
125. Serretti A, Chiesa A, Calati R, Perna G, Bellodi L, De Ronchi D. Common genetic, clinical, demographic and psychosocial predictors of response to pharmacotherapy in mood and anxiety disorders. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 2009;24:1-18
126. Calati R, Salvina Signorelli M, Balestri M, Marsano A, De Ronchi D, Aguglia E, et al. Antidepressants in elderly: Metaregression of double-blind, randomized clinical trials. J Affect Disord 2013;147:1-8.
127. Roy A. Family history of suicide in affective disorder patients. J Clin Psychiatry 1985;46:317-9.
128. Roy-Byrne PP, Post RM, Hambrick DD, Leverich GS, Rosoff AS. Suicide and course of illness in major affective disorder. J Affect Disord 1988;15:1-8.
129. Ahrens B, Berghöfer A, Wolf T, Müller-Oerlinghausen B. Suicide attempts, age and duration of illness in recurrent affective disorders. J Affect Disord 1995;36:43-9.
130. Altamura AC, Dell ' Osso B, Berlin HA, Buoli M, Bassetti R, Mundo E. Duration of untreated illness and suicide in bipolar disorder: A naturalistic study. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2010;260:385-91.
131. Martínez-Arán A, Vieta E, Reinares M, Colom F, Torrent C, Sánchez-Moreno J, et al. Cognitive function across manic or hypomanic, depressed, and euthymic states in bipolar disorder. Am J Psychiatry 2004;161:262-70.
132. Martínez-Arán A, Vieta E, Colom F Torrent C, Reinares M, Goikolea JM, et al. Do cognitive complaints in euthymic bipolar patients reflect objective cognitive impairment? Psychother Psychosom 2005;74:295-302.
133. Donaldson S, Goldstein LH, Landau S, Raymont V, Frangou S. The Maudsley Bipolar Disorder Project: The effect of medication, family history, and duration of illness on IQ and memory in bipolar I disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 2003;64:86-93
134. Frangou S, Donaldson S, Hadjulis M, Landau S, Goldstein LH. The Maudsley Bipolar Disorder Project: Executive dysfunction in bipolar disorder I and its clinical correlates. Biol Psychiatry 2005;58:859-64.
135. Torrent C, Martinez-Arán A, del Mar Bonnin C, Reinares M, Daban C, Solé B, et al. Long-term outcome of cognitive impairment in bipolar disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 2012;73:e899-905.
136. McKinnon MC, Cusi AM, Macqueen GM. Impaired theory of mind performance in patients with recurrent bipolar disorder: Moderating effect of cognitive load. Psychiatry Res 2010;177:261-2.
137. Bearden CE, Glahn DC, Monkul ES, Barrett J, Najt P, Kaur S, et al. Sources of declarative memory impairment in bipolar disorder: Mnemonic processes and clinical features. J Psychiatr Res 2006;40:47-58.
138. Reinares M, Papachristou E, Harvey P, Mar Bonnín C, Sánchez-Moreno J, Torrent C, et al. Towards a clinical staging for bipolar disorder: Defining patient subtypes based on functional outcome. J Affect Disord 2012;144:65-71
139. Eric YW, Halari R, Cheng KM, Leung SK, Young AH. Cognitive performance is impaired in euthymic Chinese patients with bipolar 1 disorder. J Affect Disord 2013;151:156-63.
140. Mora E, Portella MJ, Forcada I, Vieta E, Mur M. Persistence of cognitive impairment and its negative impact on psychosocial functioning in lithium-treated, euthymic bipolar patients: A 6-year follow-up study. Psychol Med 2013;43:1187-96.
141. Keller MB, Shapiro RW. Major depressive disorder. Initial results from a one-year prospective naturalistic follow-up study. J Nerv Ment Dis 1981;169:761-8.
142. Ramana R, Paykel ES, Cooper Z, Hayhurst H, Saxty M, Surtees PG. Remission and relapse in major depression: A two-year prospective follow-up study. Psychol Med 1995;25:1161-70
143. Mueller TI, Keller MB, Leon AC, Solomon DA, Shea MT, Coryell W, et al. Recovery after 5 years of unremitting major depressive disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1996;53:94-9.
144. Tseng MC, Cheng IC, Lee YJ, Lee MB. Intermediate-term outcome of psychiatric inpatients with major depression. J Formos Med Assoc 2006;105:645-52.
145. Mynors-Wallis L, Gath D. Predictors of treatment outcome for major depression in primary care. Psychol Med 1997;27:731-6
146. Goodyer IM, Herbert J, Secher SM, Pearson J. Short-term outcome of major depression: I. Comorbidity and severity at presentation as predictors of persistent disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1997;36:179-87.
147. Kessing LV, Andersen PK, Mortensen PB. Predictors of recurrence in affective disorder. A case register study. J Affect Disord 1998;49:101-8
148. Yates WR, Mitchell J, Rush AJ, Trivedi MH, Wisniewski SR, Warden D, et al. Clinical features of depressed outpatients with and without co-occurring general medical conditions in STAR∗D. Gen Hosp Psychiatry 2004;26:421-9.
149. Stein MB, Tancer ME, Uhde TW. Major depression in patients with panic disorder: Factors associated with course and recurrence. J Affect Disord 1990;19:287-96
150. Finnerty RJ, Goldberg HL. Specific responses to imipramine and doxepin in psychoneurotic depressed patients with sleep disturbance. J Clin Psychiatry 1981;42:275-9.
151. Black DW, Winokur G, Nasrallah A. Illness duration and acute response in major depression. Convuls Ther 1989;5:338-343.
152. Zarate CA Jr, Rothschild A, Fletcher KE, Madrid A, Zapatel J. Clinical predictors of acute response with quetiapine in psychotic mood disorders. J Clin Psychiatry 2000;61:185-9
153. Dewulf L, Hendrickx B, Lesaffre E. Epidemiological data of patients treated with fluvoxamine: Results from a 12 week noncomparative multicentre study. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 1995;9:67-72.
154. Möller HJ, Schnitker J, Flürenbrock W. Factors associated with response in depressed elderly outpatients treated with escitalopram in a naturalistic setting in Germany. Pharmacopsychiatry 2010;43:210-5
155. Lewis DA, Nasrallah H. Mania associated with electroconvulsive therapy. J Clin Psychiatry 1986;47:366-7.
156. Angst J, Sellaro R, Stassen HH, Gamma A. Diagnostic conversion from depression to bipolar disorders: Results of a long-term prospective study of hospital admissions. J Affect Disord 2005;84:149-57.
157. Burns RA, Lock T, Edwards DR, Katona CL, Harrison DA, Robertson MM. Predictors of response to amine-specific antidepressants. J Affect Disord 1995;35:97-106
158. Cusin C, Fava M, Amsterdam JD, Quitkin FM, Reimherr FW, Beasley CM J, et al. Early symtomatic worsening during treatment with fluoxetine in major depressive disorder: Prevalence and implications. J Clin Psychiatry 2007;68:52-7.
159. st century: Systematic assessment of 801 patients presenting for treatment. J Affect Disord 2008;110:55-61.
160. Sung SC, Wisniewski SR, Balasubramani GK, Zisook S, Kurian B, Warden D, et al.; CO-MED Study Team. Does early-onset chronic or recurrent major depression impact outcomes with antidepressant medications? A CO-MED trial report. Psychol Med 2013;43:945-60
161. Azorin JM, Kaladjian A, Besnier N, Adida M, Hantouche E, Lancrenon S, et al. Suicidal behaviour in a French Cohort of major depressive patients: Characteristics of attempters and nonattempters. J Affect Disord 2010;123:87-94.
162. Borkowska A, Rybakowski JK. Neuropsychological frontal lobe tests indicate that bipolar depressed patients are more impaired than unipolar. Bipolar Disord 2001;3:88-94.
163. Garcia-Toro M, Talavera JA, Gonzalez E, Tejada P, Blanco C, Gonzalez A, et al. Audioverbal cognitive dysfunction in depression. Factors involved. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2003;27:37-42.
164. Derntl B, Seidel EM, Schneider F, Habel U. How specific are emotional deficits? A comparison of empathic abilities in schizophrenia, bipolar and depressed patients. Schizophr Res 2012;142:58-64
165. Altamura AC, Glick ID. Designing outcome studies to determine efficacy and safety of antipsychotics for "real world" treatment of schizophrenia. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 2010;13:971-3.
166. Marshall M, Rathbone J. Early intervention in psychosis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2006;18:CD004718.
167. Keitner GI, Ryan CE, Miller IW, Norman WH. Recovery and major depression: Factors associated with twelve-month outcome. Am J Psychiatry 1992;149:93-99.
168. Marshall M, Rathbone J. Early intervention for psychosis. Schizophr Bull 2011;37:1111-4.
169. Altamura AC, Buoli M, Albano A, Dell'Osso B. Age at onset and latency to treatment (duration of untreated illness) in patients with mood and anxiety disorders: A naturalistic study. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 2010;25:172-9.
170. Aguilar EJ, Siris SG. Do antipsychotic drugs influence suicidal behavior in schizophrenia? Psychopharmacol Bull 2007;40:28-142.
171. Meltzer HY, Alphs L, Green AI, Altamura AC, Anand R, Bertoldi A, et al.; International Suicide Prevention Trial Study Group. Clozapine treatment for suicidality in schizophrenia: International Suicide Prevention Trial (InterSePT). Arch Gen Psychiatry 2003;60:82-91.
172. Curran G, Ravindran A. Lithium for bipolar disorder: A review of the recent literature. Expert Rev Neurother 2014;14:1079-1098.
173. Asenjo Lobos C, Komossa K, Rummel-Kluge C, Hunger H, Schmid F, Schwarz S, et al. Clozapine versus other atypical antipsychotics for schizophrenia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2010;11:CD006633.
174. Bowie CR, Harvey PD. Treatment of cognitive deficits in schizophrenia. Curr Opin Investig Drugs 2006;7:608-13.
175. Torrey EF, Davis JM. Adjunct treatments for schizophrenia and bipolar disorder: What to try when you are out of ideas. Clin Schizophr Relat Psychoses 2012;5:208-216.
176. Altamura AC, Bassetti R, Cattaneo E, Vismara S. Some biological correlates of drug resistance in schizophrenia: A multidimensional approach. World J Biol Psychiatry 2005;6:23-30.