Local actors in the driver's seat: Transatlantic democracy promotion under regime competition in the Arab world

Democratization

Volumn 22, Issue 3, 2015, Pages 496-518

  Freyburg, Tina ^a   Richter, Solveig ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WARWICK   (United Kingdom)

^b UNIVERSITY OF ERFURT   (Germany)

Author keywords

Arab Spring; conditionality; credibility; democracy promotion; EU; Saudi Arabia; Tunisia; US

Indexed keywords

EID: 84930573519     PISSN: 13510347     EISSN: 1743890X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/13510347.2014.1000875     Document Type: Article

References (79)

1. Al Arabiya. “Saudi Aid to Arab Spring Countries $3.7 Billion: IMF.” Al Arabiya. 18 September 2012.
2. Z.Al-Ali, Zaid, and D.B.RomdhaneDonia Ben. “Tunisia”s New Constitution: Progress and Challenges to Come.” openDemocracy, 16 February 2014.
3. M.A.Albogami, Mansour Almarzoqi. “GCC: The Arab Spring spoilers.” Al Jazeera, 13 January 2014.
4. Al Jazeera. “Foreign Leaders Hail Tunisia”s Constitution.” Al Jazeera, 7 February 2014.
5. T.Ambrosio, Thomas. Authoritarian Backlash: Russian Resistance to Democratization in the former Soviet Union. Farnham: Ashgate, 2009.
6. J.Bader, Julia, J.GrävingholtJörn, and A.KästnerAntje. “Would Autocracies Promote Autocracy? A Political Economy Perspective on Regime-type Export in Regional Neighbourhoods.” Contemporary Politics, 16, no. 1 (2010): 81–100. doi: 10.1080/13569771003593904
7. R.Balfour, Rosa. “EU Conditionality After the Arab Spring”, Euromesco PapersIEMed no. 16 (2012).
8. S.Barakat, Sultan, and S.ZyckSteven. “Gulf State Assistance to Conflict-affected Environments.” LSE Centre for the Study of Global Governance Research Paper (2010).
9. M.Barroso, Manuel. “Déclaration du Président Barroso suite à sa rencontre avec Monsieur Mehdi Jomaa, Premier Ministre de Tunisie, European Commission.” SPEECH/14/486, June 2014.
10. L.Berger, Lars. “The Missing Link? US Policy and the International Dimensions of Failed Democratic Transitions in the Arab World.” Political Studies 59 (2011): 38–55. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9248.2010.00853.x
11. Bertelsmann Stiftung [BTI]. “Tunisia Country Report.” 2014.
12. Bertelsmann Stiftung [BTI]. “Regional Report. Middle East and North Africa.” 2014.
13. J.Blatter, Joachim, and T.BlumeTill. “In Search of Co-variance, Causal Mechanisms or Congruence? Towards a Plural Understanding of Case Studies.” Swiss Political Science Review 14, no. 2 (2008): 315–56. doi: 10.1002/j.1662-6370.2008.tb00105.x
14. T.Böhmelt, Tobias, and T.Freyburg, Tina. “The Temporal Dimension of the Credibility of EU Conditionality and Candidate States Compliance with the Acquis Communautaire, 1998–2009.” European Union Politics 14, no. 2 (2014): 250–272. doi: 10.1177/1465116512458164
15. D.Brinks, Daniel, and M.Coppedge, Michael. “Diffusion Is No Illusion. Neighbour Emulation in the Third Wave of Democracy.” Comparative Political Studies 39, no. 4 (2006): 463–89. doi: 10.1177/0010414005276666
16. E.Burke, Edward. “Running into the Sand? The EU”s Faltering Response to the Arab Revolutions.” Centre for European Reform Report (2013).
17. P.Burnell, Peter. “Is there a New Autocracy Promotion?.” FRIDE working paper no. 96. Madrid (2010).
18. P.Burnell, Peter, and O.SchlumbergerOliver. “Promoting Democracy–Promoting Autocracy? International Politics and National Political and Regimes.” Contemporary Politics 16, no. 1 (2010): 1–15. doi: 10.1080/13569771003593805
19. P.Burnell, Peter. “Democratisation in the Middle East and North Africa: Perspectives from Democracy Support.” Third World Quarterly 34, no. 5 (2013): 838–55. doi: 10.1080/01436597.2013.800742
20. G.Cafiero, Giorgio. “Arab Awakening Triggers Saudi-Qatari Rivalries.” The Palestine Chronicle, October 2012.
21. F.Cavatorta, Francesco, and F.MeroneFabio. “Moderation through Exclusion? The Journey of the Tunisian Ennahda from Fundamentalist to Conservative Party.” Democratization 20, no. 5 (2013): 857–75. doi: 10.1080/13510347.2013.801255
22. A.Chrisafis, Angelique. “Sarkozy admits France made mistakes over Tunisia.” The Guardian 24 January 2011.
23. R.B.Collier, Ruth Berins, and D.CollierDavid.: Shaping the Political Arena. Critical Junctures, the Labor Movement, and Regime Dynamics in Latin America. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991.
24. A.Dandashly, Assem. “Building a Security Community in the Neighbourhood. Zooming in on EU–Tunisia Relations.” Norwegian Institute of International Affairs Working Paper no. 836 (2014).
25. D.Donno, Daniela. Defending Democratic Norms: International Actors and the Politics of Electoral Misconduct. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013.
26. M.Dunne, Michele, and R.YoungsRichard. “Europe and the US in the Middle East: A Convergence of Partiality.” FRIDE Policy Brief no. 149 (2013).
27. A.Dworkin, Anthony. “The Struggle for Pluralism after the North African Revolutions.” ECFR Pluralism Report no. 74 (2013).
28. G.Erdmann, Gero, A.BankAndré, B.HoffmannBert, and T.RichterThomas. “International Cooperation of Authoritarian Regimes: Toward a Conceptual Framework.” GIGA Research Working Paper no. 229 (2013).
29. D.Ethier, Diane. “Is Democracy Promotion Effective? Comparing Conditionality and Incentives.” Democratization 10, no. 1 (2003): 99–120. doi: 10.1080/13510340312331293947a
30. European Commission. “EU EOM deployed in Tunisia”, Press Release 140919/02. Brussels, 19 September 2014.
31. European Commission. “EU and Tunisia Establish their Mobility Partnership”, Press Release IP/14/208. Brussels, 03 March 2014.
32. European Commission. “European Union, Trade in goods with Tunisia”, Directorate-General for Trade, [http://trade.ec.europa.eu/doclib/docs/2006/september/tradoc_122002.pdf] (27 August 2014.
33. European Commission. “A Partnership for Democracy and Shared Prosperity with the Southern Mediterranean”, COM(2011)200final. Brussels, 8 March 2011.
34. European Commission. “EU/Tunisia Task Force Agrees Concrete Assistance for Tunisia”s Transition”, Press Release IP/11/1137.” Brussels, 29 September 2011.
35. European Commission. “The EU's Response to the “Arab Spring”“, Memo 11/918. Brussels, 16 December 2011.
36. Freedom House. “Freedom in the World. Tunisia.” Freedom House Country Report (2014).
37. A.George, Alexander, and A.BennettAndrew. Case Studies and Theory Development in the Social Sciences. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2004.
38. R.Gillespie, Richard, and L.WhiteheadLaurence. “European Democracy Promotion in North Africa: Limits and Prospects.” In The European Union and Democracy Promotion: The Case of North Africa, edited by R.GillespieRichard and R.YoungsRichard, 192–206. London: Cass, 2002.
39. H.Grabbe, Heather. The EU's Transformative Power. Europeanization through Conditionality in Central and Eastern Europe. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006.
40. D.Greenfield, Danya, A.HawthorneAmy, and R.BalfourRosa. US and EU: Lack of Strategic Vision, Frustrated Efforts toward the Arab Transitions. Washington, DC: Atlantic Council, September 2013.
41. D.Greenfield, Danya, and R.BalfourRosa. Arab Awakening: Are the US and EU Missing the Challenge?. Washington, DC: Atlantic Council, June 2012.
42. O.Hassan, Oz. “Undermining the Transatlantic Democracy Agenda? The Arab Spring and Saudi-Arabia”s Counteracting Democracy Strategy.” Democratization 22, no. 3 (2015): 479–495.
43. J.Higley, John, and M.BurtonMichael. “The Elite Variable in Democratic Transitions and Breakdowns.” American Sociological Review 54, no. 1 (1989): 17–32. doi: 10.2307/2095659
44. A.A.Holmes, Amy Austin. “The Military Intervention that the World Forgot. Saudi and Emirati Forces Continue to Police Bahrain.” Al Jazeera, 29 March 2014.
45. D.Huber, Daniela. “US and EU Human Rights and Democracy Promotion since the Arab Spring. Rethinking its Content, Targets and Instruments.” The International Spectator 48, no. 3 (2013): 98–112. doi: 10.1080/03932729.2013.787827
46. International Crisis Group [ICG]. “The Tunisian Exception: Success and Limits of Consensus.” Middle East and North Africa Briefing no. 37 (2014).
47. International Monetary Fund [IMF]. “Saudi-Arabia: Selected Issues.” IMF Country Report no. 12/272 (2012).
48. S.K.Isaac, Sally Khalifa. “Rethinking the New ENP: A Vision for an Enhanced European Role in the Arab Revolutions.” Democracy and Security 9, no. 1/2 (2013): 40–60. doi: 10.1080/17419166.2012.736308
49. A.Jünemann, Anette. “Security-Building in the Mediterranean After September 11.” Mediterranean Politics 8, no. 2 (2003): 1–20. doi: 10.1080/13629390308230002
50. K.Kausch, Kristina. “Foreign Funding in Post-revolution Tunisia”, FRIDE working paper (2013).
51. J.Kelley, Judith. Monitoring Democracy: When International Election Observation Works, and Why It Often Fails. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2012.
52. D.Kholaif, Dahlia. “Will the GCC survive Qatar-Saudi rivalry?.” Al Jazeera. 18 March 2014.
53. P.Kubicek, Paul, ed. The European Union and Democratization. London: Routledge, 2003. doi: 10.4324/9780203458464
54. L.Landolt, Laura, and P.KubicekPaul. “Opportunities and Constraints: Comparing Tunisia and Egypt to the Coloured Revolutions.” Democratization 21, no. 6 (2014): 984–1006.
55. S.Lavenex, Sandra, and F.SchimmelfennigFrank. “EU Democracy Promotion in the Neighbourhood: From Leverage to Governance?” Democratization 18, no. 4 (2011): 885–909. doi: 10.1080/13510347.2011.584730
56. J.Levy, Jack. “Case Studies: Types, Designs, and Logic of Inference.” Conflict Management and Peace Science 25 (2008): 1–18. doi: 10.1080/07388940701860318
57. J.Mahoney, James. The Legacies of Liberalism: Path Dependence and Political Regimes in Central America. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001.
58. E.Neumayer, Eric. “Arab-related Bilateral Sources of Development Finance: Issues, Trends, and the Way Forward.” World Economy 27, no. 2 (2004): 281–300. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9701.2004.00600.x
59. R.Nordland, Rod. “Saudi-Arabia Promises to Aid Egypt”s Regime.” The New York Times, 20 August 2013.
60. Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development [OECD]. “Reporting Directives for the Creditor Reporting System. Corrigendum on the Channels of Delivery.” DCD/DAC(2007)39/FINAL/CORR5, 2010.
61. S.Richter, Solveig. “Two at One Blow? The EU and its Quest for Security and Democracy by Political Conditionality in the Western Balkans.” Democratization 19, no. 3 (2012): 507–534. doi: 10.1080/13510347.2012.674360
62. T.Risse, Thomas, and N.BabayanNelli. “Democracy Promotion and the Challenges of Illiberal Regional Powers: Introduction to the Special Issue.” Democratization 22, no. 3 (2015): 381–399.
63. D.Rustow, Dankwart. “Transitions to Democracy.” Comparative Politics 2, no. 3 (1970): 337–63. doi: 10.2307/421307
64. B.Salloukh, Bassel. “The Arab Uprisings and the Geopolitics of the Middle East.” The International Spectator 48, no. 2 (2013): 32–46. doi: 10.1080/03932729.2013.787830
65. F.Schimmelfennig, Frank, and H.ScholtzHanno. “EU Democracy Promotion in the European Neighbourhood: Political Conditionality, Economic Development and Transnational Exchange.” European Union Politics 9, no. 2 (2008): 187–215. doi: 10.1177/1465116508089085
66. F.Schimmelfennig, Frank, and U.SedelmeierUlrich. “Governance by Conditionality: EU Rule Transfer to the Candidate Countries of Central and Eastern Europe.” Journal of European Public Policy 11, no. 4 (2004): 661–679. doi: 10.1080/1350176042000248089
67. F.Schimmelfennig, Frank, E.StefanEngert, and K.HeikoKnobel. International Socialization in Europe. European Organizations, Political Conditionality and Democratic Change. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006.
68. P.Schmitter, Philippe. “The influence of the International Context upon the Choice of National Institutions and Policies in Neo-Democracies.” In The International Dimension of Democratization. Europe and the Americas edited by L.WhiteheadLaurence, 26–54. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996.
69. J.Scott, James, and R.CarterRalph. “From Cold War to Arab Spring: Mapping the Effects of Paradigm Shifts on the Nature and Dynamics of US Democracy Assistance to the Middle East and North Africa.” Democratization, online first, 2014.
70. C.Smith, Charles. “Democracy or Authoritarianism? Army or Anarchy? First Takes and Later Reflections on the Arab Spring.” The Middle East Journal 67, no. 4 (2013): 633–662. doi: 10.3751/67.4.3
71. The Guardian. “Tunisia election results: Nida Tunis wins most seats, sidelining Islamists.” The Guardian, 30 October 2014.
72. J.Tolstrup, Jakob. “When Can External Actors Influence Democratization? Leverage, Linkage, and Gatekeeper Elites.” Democratization 20, no. 4 (2013): 716–42. doi: 10.1080/13510347.2012.666066
73. M.A.Vachudova, Milada Anna. Europe Undivided: Democracy, Leverage and Integration After Communism. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005. doi: 10.1093/0199241198.001.0001
74. V.Van Hüllen, Vera. “Europeanisation through Cooperation? EU Democracy Promotion in Morocco and Tunisia.” West European Politics 35, no. 1 (2012): 117–34. doi: 10.1080/01402382.2012.631317
75. H.Welsh, Helga. “Political Transition Processes in Central and Eastern Europe.” Comparative Politics 26, no. 4 (1994): 379–94. doi: 10.2307/422022
76. R.Whitman, Richard, and A.JuncosAna. “Challenging Events, Diminishing Influence? Relations with the Wider Europe.” Journal of Common Market Studies, 52 (2014), 157–69. doi: 10.1111/jcms.12171
77. World Bank. “Country Data Report for Tunisia, 1996–2012.” Worldwide Governance Indicators (2013).
78. R.Youngs, Richard. “The European Union and Democracy Promotion in the Mediterranean: A New or Disingenuous Strategy.” Democratization 9, no. 1 (2002): 40–62. doi: 10.1080/714000237
79. R.Youngs, Richard. “From Transformation to Mediation. The Arab Spring Reframed.” Carnegie Europe, March 2014.