Freshwater treatment of amoebic gill disease and sea-lice in seawater salmon production: Considerations of water chemistry and fish welfare in Norway

Aquaculture

Volumn 448, Issue , 2015, Pages 18-28

  Powell, Mark D ^a   Reynolds, Pat ^b   Kristensen, Torstein ^c  

^a NORWEGIAN INSTITUTE FOR WATER RESEARCH   (Norway)

^b Gildeskal Forskningsstasjon AS   (Norway)

^c NORD UNIVERSITY   (Norway)

Author keywords

AGD; Atlantic salmon; Bath treatments; Paramoeba perurans; Salmo salar; Sea lice Lepeophtheirus salmonis; Water chemistry

Indexed keywords

FISH CULTURE; FRESHWATER; POLLUTION CONTROL; SALMONID; SEAWATER; WATER QUALITY; WATER TREATMENT;

NORWAY;

LEPEOPHTHEIRUS SALMONIS; PARAMOEBA; PHTHIRAPTERA; SALMO SALAR;

EID: 84930196797     PISSN: 00448486     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.aquaculture.2015.05.027     Document Type: Review

References (95)

1. Adams M.B., Villavedra M., Nowak B.F. An opportunistic detection of amoebic gill disease (AGD) in blue warehou (Seriolella brama Gυnther) collected from an Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) production cage in South Eastern Tasmania. J. Fish Dis. 2008, 27:105-113.
2. Adams M.B., Crosbie P.B.B., Nowak B.F. Preliminary success using hydrogen peroxide to treat Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., affected with experimentally induced amoebic gill disease (AGD). J. Fish Dis. 2012, 35:839-848.
3. Andren C.M., Kroglund F., Teien H.C. Controlled exposure of brown trout to humic water limed to different pH and inorganic aluminium concentrations. Verh. Int. Verein. Limnol. 2006, 29:1548-1552.
4. Åtland Å., Groison A.-L.-, Dale T., Kroglund F., Barlaup B.T. Aluminium som trusselfaktor i brakkvann. Direktoratet for Naturforvaltning 2013, 1-2013:116-128. B.T. Barlaup (Ed.).
5. Bermingham M.L., Mulchay M.F. Microfauna associated with amoebic gill disease in sea farmed Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L. smolts. J. Fish Dis. 2006, 29:455-465.
6. Bjerknes V., Fyllingen I., Holtet L., Teien H.-C., Rosseland B.O., Kroglund F. Aluminium in acidic river water causes mortality of farmed Atlantic Salmon (Salmo salar L.) Norwegian fjords. Mar. Chem. 2003, 83:169-174.
7. Bravo S., Treasurer J., Sepulveda M., Lagos C. Effectiveness of hydrogen peroxide in the control of Caligus rogercresseyi in Chile and implications for sea louse management. Aquaculture 2010, 303:22-27.
8. Bricknell I.R., Dalesman S.J., O'Shea B., Pert C.C., Luntz A.J.M. Effect of environmental salinity on sea lice Leopeptheirus salmonis settlement success. Dis. Aquat. Org. 2006, 71:201-212.
9. Bridle A.R., Morrison R.N., Cunningham P.M.C., Nowak B.F. Quantitation of immune response gene expression and cellular localisation of interleukin-1 beta mRNA in Atlantic salmon Salmo salar L., affected by amoebic gill disease (AGD). Vet. Immunol. Immunopathol. 2006, 114:121-134.
10. Burridge L., Weis J.S., Cabello F., Pizarro J., Bostick K. Chemical use in salmon aquaculture: a review of current practices and possible environmental effects. Aquaculture 2010, 306:7-23.
11. Bustos P.A., Young N.D., Rozas M.A., Bohle H.M., Ildefonso R.S., Morrison R.N., Nowak B.F. Amoebic gill disease (AGD) in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) farmed in Chile. Aquaculture 2011, 310:281-288.
12. Clark G., Powell M., Nowak B. Effect of commercial freshwater bathing on reinfection of Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar with amoebic gill disease. Aquaculture 2003, 219:135-142.
13. Connors B.M., Juarez-Colunga E., Dill L.M. Effects of varying salinities on Lepeophtheirus salmonis survival on juvenile pink and chum salmon. J. Fish Biol. 2008, 72:1825-1830.
14. Crosbie P.B.B., Ogawa K., Nakano D., Nowak B.F. Amoebic gill disease in hatchery-reared ayu, Plecoglossus altivelis (Temminck & Schlegel), in Japan is caused by Neoparamoeba perurans. J. Fish Dis. 2010, 33:455-458.
15. Douglas-Helders G.M., Weir I.J., O'Brien D.P., Carson J., Nowak B.F. Effects of husbandry on prevalence of amoebic gill disease and performance of reared Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.). Aquaculture 2004, 241:21-30.
16. Dyková I., Novoa B. Comments on the diagnosis on the diagnosis of amoebic gill disease (AGD) in turbot, Scophthalmus maximus. Bull. Eur. Assoc. Fish Pathol. 2001, 21:21-44.
17. Dyková I., Figueras A., Novoa B. Amoebic gill infection of turbot Scophthalmus maximus. Folia Parasitol. 1995, 42:91-96.
18. Emerson K., Russo R., Lund R., Thurson R. Aqueous ammonia equilibrium calculations: effects of pH and temperature. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 1975, 32:2379-2383.
19. Evans D.H., Piermarini P.M., Choe K.P. The multifunctional fish gill: dominant site of gas exchange, osmoregulation, acid-base regulation, and excretion of nitrogenous waste. Physiol. Rev. 2005, 85:97-177.
20. Finstad B., Kroglund F., Strand R., Stefansson S.O., Bjørn P.A., Rosseland B.O., Nilsen T.O., Salbu B. Salmon lice or suboptimal water quality - reasons for reduced post-smolt survival?. Aquaculture 2007, 273:374-383.
21. Finstad B., Kroglund F., Bjørn P.A., Nilsen R., Pettersen K., Rosseland B.O., Teien H.-C., Nilsen T.O., Stefansson S.O., Salbu B., Fiske P., Ebbesson L.O.E. Salmon lice-induced mortality of Atlantic salmon postsmolts experiencing episodic acidification and recovery in freshwater. Aquaculture 2012, 362-363:193-199.
22. Fivelstad S. Long-term carbon dioxide experiments with salmonids. Aquac. Eng. 2013, 53:40-48.
23. Fivelstad S., Binde M. Effects of reduced waterflow (increased loading) in soft water on Atlantic salmon smolts (Salmo salar L.) while maintaining oxygen at constant level by oxygenation of the inlet water. Aquac. Eng. 1994, 13:211-238.
24. Fivelstad S., Waagbø R., Zeitz S.F., Hosfeld A.C.D., Olsen A.B., Stefansson S. A major water quality problem in smolt farms: combined effects of carbon dioxide, reduced pH and aluminium on Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) smolts: physiology and growth. Aquaculture 2003, 215:339-357.
25. Green T., Powell M.D., Harris J.O., Butler R. Effects of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and hardness in freshwater used to treat amoebic gill disease (AGD). Aquac. Res. 2005, 36:398-404.
26. Harris J.O., Powell M.D., Attard M.G., Green T. Efficacy of chloramine-T as a treatment for amoebic gill disease (AGD) in marine Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.). Aquac. Res. 2004, 35:1448-1456.
27. Harris J.O., Powell M.D., Attard M.G., DeHayr L. Clinical assessment of chloramine-T as a treatment for the control of gill amoebae in farmed Tasmanian Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L. Aquac. Res. 2005, 36:776-784.
28. Henriksen A., Lien L., Rosseland B.O., Traaen T., Sevaldrud I. Lake acidification in Norway - present and predicted fish status. Ambio 1989, 18:314-321.
29. Heuch P., Gettinby G., Revie C.W. Counting sea lice on Atlantic salmon farms - empirical and theoretical observations. Aquaculture 2011, 320:149-153.
30. Howard T., Carson J. Progress report: are there alternatives to freshwater treatment of AGD?. Seeking and Solving: Saltas R&D Review Seminar 1993, 81-87. (Hobart, Tasmania, Australia).
31. Johnson S.C., Constible J.M., Richard J. Laboratory investigations on the efficacy of hydrogen peroxide against the salmon louse Lepeophtheirus salmonis and its toxicological and histopathological effects on Atlantic salmon Salmo salar and chinook salmon Oncorhynchus tshawytscha. Dis. Aquat. Org. 1993, 17:197-204.
32. Karlsbakk E., Olsen A.B., Einen A.-C.B., Mo T.A., Fiksdal I.U., Aase H., Kalgraff C., Skår S.-Å., Hansen H. Amoebic gill disease due to Paramoeba perurans in Ballan wrasse (Labrus bergylta). Aquaculture 2013, 412-413:41-44.
33. Keimer M.C.B., Black K.D. The effects of hydrogen peroxide on the gill tissues of Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L. Aquaculture 1997, 153:181-189.
34. Kristensen T., Åtland Å., Rosten T., Urke H.A., Rosseland B.O. Important influent-water quality parameters at freshwater production sites in two salmon producing countries. Aquac. Eng. 2009, 41:53-59.
35. Leef M.J., Harris J.O., Hill J.V., Powell M.D. Cardiovascular responses of three salmonid species affected with amoebic gill disease (AGD). J. Comp. Physiol. B. 2005, 175:523-532.
36. Leef M.J., Harris J.O., Powell M.D. Respiratory pathogenesis of amoebic gill disease (AGD) in experimentally infected Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). Dis. Aquat. Org. 2005, 66:205-213.
37. Leef M.J., Hill J.V., Harris J.O., Powell M.D. Increased systemic vascular resistance in Atlantic salmon Salmo salar L. affected with amoebic gill disease. J. Fish Dis. 2007, 30:601-613.
38. Leivestad H., Muniz I.P., Rosseland B.O. Acid stress in trout from a dilute mountain stream. Ecological Impact of Acid Precipitation. - SNSF-Project FA 105/80 1980, 336-337. A. Tollan, D. Drabløs (Eds.).
39. Lovy J., Becker J.A., Speare D.J., Wadowska D.W., Wright G.M., Powell M.D. Ultrastructural examination of the host cellular response in the gills of Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar, with amoebic gill disease. Vet. Pathol. 2007, 44:663-671.
40. Lydersen E., Lofgren S., Arnesen R.T. Metals in Scandinavian surface waters: effects of acidification, liming and potential reacidification. Crit. Rev. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2002, 32:73-295.
41. Mitchell S.O., Rodger H.D. A review of infectious gill disease in marine salmonid fish. J. Fish Dis. 2011, 34:411-432.
42. Morrison R.N., Cooper G.A., Koop B.F., Rise M.L., Bridle A.R., Adams M.B., Nowak B.F. Transcriptome profiling the gills of amoebic gill disease (AGD)-affected Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.): a role for tumor suppressor p53 in AGD pathogenesis?. Physiol. Genet. 2006, 26:15-34.
43. Nowak B.F., Carson J., Powell M.D., Dykova I. Amoebic gill disease in the marine environment. Bull. Eur. Assoc. Fish Pathol. 2002, 22:144-148.
44. Nowak B., Valdenegro-Vega V., Crosbie P., Bridle A. Immunity to amoeba. Dev. Comp. Immunol. 2013, 43:257-267.
45. Nylund A., Watanabe K., Nylund S., Karlsen M., Saether P.A., Arnesen C.E., Karlsbakk E. Morphogenesis of salmonid gill poxvirus associated with proliferative gill disease in farmed Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) in Norway. Arch. Virol. 2008, 153:1299-1309.
46. Pagenkopf G.K. Gill surface interaction model for trace-metal toxicity to fishes: role of complexation, pH and water hardness. Environ. Sci. Technol. 1983, 17:342-347.
47. Parsons H., Nowak B., Fisk D., Powell M. Effectiveness of freshwater bathing as a treatment against amoebic gill disease in Atlantic salmon. Aquaculture 2001, 195:205-210.
48. Parsons H.J., Nowak B.F., Powell M.D., Dix T. Changes in water quality during freshwater bathing of Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar, in Tasmania. Bull. Eur. Assoc. Fish Pathol. 2001, 21:71-76.
49. Pennacchi Y., Leef M.J., Crosbie P.-B.B., Nowak B.F., Bridle A.R. Evidence of immune and inflammatory processes in the gills of AGD-affected Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L. Fish Shellfish Immunol. 2014, 36:563-570.
50. Perry S.F., Gilmour K.M. Acid-base balance and CO2 excretion in fish: unanswered questions and emerging models. Respir. Physiol. Neurobiol. 2006, 154:199-215.
51. Powell M.D., Nowak B.F., Adams M.B. Cardiac morphology in relation to AGD history in Atlantic salmon Salmo salar. J. Fish Dis. 2002, 25:209-215.
52. Powell M.D. Physiological and clinical pathology. Systemic Pathology of Fish 2006, 336-356. Scotian Press, London, UK. 2nd ed. H.W. Ferguson (Ed.).
53. Powell M.D. Respiration in infectious and non-infectious gill diseases. Fish Respiration and Environment 2007, 317-339. Science Publishers, Inc., Enfield (NH), USA. M.N. Fernandes, F.T. Rantin, M.L. Glass, B.G. Kapoor (Eds.).
54. Powell M.D., Clark G.A. Atlantic salmon aquaculture subprogram: effective treatments for the control of AGD. Fisheries Research and Development Corporation Final Report Project 2000/266 2002, (ISBN 0 85901 986 85pp.).
55. Powell M.D., Clark G.A. In vitro survival and the effect of effects of water chemistry and oxidative chemical treatments on isolated gill amoebae from AGD-affected Atlantic salmon. Aquaculture 2003, 220:135-144.
56. Powell M.D., Harris J.O. Influence of oxygen on the toxicity of chloramine-T to Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) smolts in fresh and salt water. J. Aquat. Anim. Health 2004, 16:83-92.
57. Powell M.D., Perry S.F. Respiratory and acid-base disturbances in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) blood during exposure to chloramine-T, paratoluenesulphonamide and hypochlorite. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 1996, 53:701-708.
58. Powell M.D., Perry S.F. Respiratory and acid-base disturbances in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) blood during exposure to chloramine-T under hypoxia and hyperoxia. J. Fish Biol. 1997, 50:418-428.
59. Powell M.D., Perry S.F. Respiratory and acid-base pathophysiology of hydrogen peroxide in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss Walbaum). Aquat. Toxicol. 1997, 27:99-112.
60. Powell M.D., Perry S.F. Branchial ionic flux responses in rainbow trout to chloramine-T after acclimation of different levels of water hardness. J. Aquat. Anim. Health 1997, 9:196-202.
61. Powell M.D., Perry S.F. Acid-base and ionic fluxes in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) during exposure to chloramine-T. Aquat. Toxicol. 1998, 43:13-24.
62. Powell M.D., Perry S.F. Cardio-respiratory effects of chloramine-T exposure in rainbow trout. Exp. Biol. Online 1999, 4:5.
63. Powell M.D., Fisk D., Nowak B.F. Effects of graded hypoxia on Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) infected with amoebic gill disease (AGD). J. Fish Biol. 2000, 57:1047-1057.
64. Powell M.D., Parsons H.J., Nowak B.F. Physiological effects of freshwater bathing of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) as a treatment for amoebic gill disease. Aquaculture 2001, 199:259-266.
65. Powell M.D., Attard M., Harris J.O., Roberts S.D., Leef M.J. Atlantic salmon aquaculture subprogram: why fish die - treatment and pathophysiology of amoebic gill disease. Fisheries Research and Development Corporation Final Report Project 2001/205 2005, (115pp.).
66. Powell M.D., Becker J.A., Ransome J., Florent R.L., Jones M.J. Atlantic salmon aquaculture subprogram: commercial AGD and salmon health. Fisheries Research and Development Corporation Final Report Project 2004/213 2007, (85pp.).
67. Powell M.D., Leef M.L., Roberts S.D., Jones M.A. Neoparamoebic gill infections: host response and physiology in salmonids. J. Fish Biol. 2008, 73:2161-2183.
68. Randall D.J., Wright P.A. Circulation and gas transfer. Physiological Ecology of Pacific Salmon 1995, 441-458. UBC Press, Vancouver. G. Groot, L. Margolis, W.C. Clarke (Eds.).
69. Revie C.W., Hollinger E., Gettinby G., Lees F., Heuch P.A. Clustering of parasites within cages on Scottish and Norwegian salmon farms: alternative sampling strategies illustrated using simulation. Prev. Vet. Med. 2007, 81:135-147.
70. Roberts S.D., Powell M.D. Reduced total hardness of freshwater enhances the efficacy of bathing as a treatment for amoebic gill disease in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.). J. Fish Dis. 2003, 26:591-599.
71. Roberts S.D., Powell M.D. Comparative ionic flux and mucous cell histochemistry: effects of salinity and disease status in the euryhaline Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.). Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A 2003, 134:525-537.
72. Robertson P.K.J., Black K.D., Adams M., Willis K., Buchan F., Orr H., Lawton L., McCullagh C. A new generation of biocides for control of crustacean in fish farms. J. Photochem. Photobiol. B Biol. 2009, 95:58-63.
73. Rodger H.D. Amoebic gill disease (AGD) in farmed salmon (Salmo salar) in Europe. Fish Vet. J. 2014, 14:16-26.
74. Rodger H.D., Henry L., Mitchell S.O. Non-infectious gill disorders of marine salmonid fish. Rev. Fish Biol. Fish. 2010, 21:423-440.
75. Rosseland B.O., Staurnes M. Physiological mechanisms for toxic effects and resistance to acidic water: an ecophysiological and ecotoxicological approach. Acidification of Freshwater Ecosystems: Implications for the Future 1994, 227-246. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. C.E.W. Steinberg, R.W. Wright (Eds.).
76. Santos M.J., Cavaleiro F., Campos P., Sousda A., Teixeira F., Martins M. Impact of amoeba and scuticociliatidia infections on the aquaculture of European seabass (Dicentrarchus labrax L.) in Portugal. Vet. Parasitol. 2010, 171:15-21.
77. Skjelkvåle B.L., Stoddard J.L., Jeffries D.S., Tørseth K., Høgåsen T., Bowman J., Mannio J., Monteith D.T., Mosello R., Rogora M., Rzychon D., Vesely J., Wieting J., Wilander A., Worsztynowicz A. Regional scale evidence for improvements in surface water chemistry 1990-2001. Environ. Pollut. 2005, 137:165-176.
78. Stein L.H., Nilsson J., Hevrøy E.M., Oppedal F., Kristiansen T.S., Lien A.M., Folkedal O. Skirt around a salmon cage to reduce infestation of salmon lice resulted in low oxygen levels. Aquac. Eng. 2012, 51:21-25.
79. Steinum T., Kvellestad A., Rønneberg L.B., Nilsen H., Asheim A., Fjell K., Nygård S.M.R., Olsen A.B., Dale O.B. First cases of amoebic gill disease (AGD) in Norwegian seawater farmed Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., and phylogeny of the causative agent using 18S cDNA sequences. J. Fish Dis. 2008, 31:205-213.
80. Stone J., Boyd S., Sommerville C., Rae G.H. An evaluation of freshwater bath treatments for the control of sea lice, Lepeophtheirus salmonis (Krøyer), infections in Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L. J. Fish Dis. 2002, 25:371-373.
81. Taylor R.S., Crosbie P.B., Cook M.T. Amoebic gill disease resistance is not related to the systemic antibody response of Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L. J. Fish Dis. 2009, 33:1-14.
82. Taylor R.S., Muller W.J., Cook M.T., Kube P., Elliot N.G. Gill observation in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) during repeated amoebic gill disease (AGD) field exposure and survival challenge. Aquaculture 2009, 290:1-80.
83. Teien H.-C., Garmo Ø.A., Åtland Å., Salbu B. Transformation of iron species in mixing zones and accumulation on fish gills. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2008, 42:1780-1786.
84. Terjesen B.F. Nitrogen excretion. Fish Larval Physiology 2008, 263-302. Science Publishers, New York. R.N. Finn, B. Kapoor (Eds.).
85. Thorarensen H., Farrell A.P. The biological requirements for post-smolt Atlantic salmon in closed-containment systems. Aquaculture 2011, (02/2011). 10.1016/j.aquaculture.2010.11.043.
86. Toovey J.P.G., Lyndon A.R. The effects of hydrogen peroxide, dichlorvos and cypermethrin on subsequent fecundity of sea lice, Lepeophtheirus salmonis under fish farm conditions. Bull. Eur. Assoc. Fish Pathol. 2000, 20:224-228.
87. Torrisen O., Jones S., Asche F., Guttormsen A., Skilbrei O.T., Nilsen F., Horsberg T.E., Jackson D. Salmon lice - impact on wild salmonids and salmon aquaculture. J. Fish Dis. 2013, 36:171-194.
88. Treasurer J.W., Grant A. The efficacy of hydrogen peroxide for the treatment of farmed Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L. infested with sea lice (Copepoda: Caligidae). Aquaculture 1997, 148:265-275.
89. Treasurer J., Grant A., Davis P.J. Physical constraints of bath treatments of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) with a sea lice burden (Copepoda: Caligidae). Contrib. Zool. 2000, 69:129-136.
90. Wilson R.W. Aluminuim. Fish Physiology 2012, vol. 31B:68-104. C.M. Wood, A.P. Farrell, C.J. Brauner (Eds.).
91. Wood C.M., Jackson E.B. Blood acid-base regulation during environmental hyperoxia in the rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri). Respir. Physiol. 1980, 42:351-372.
92. Young N.D., Crosbie P.B., Adams M.B., Nowak B.F., Morrison R.N. Neoparamoeba perurans n. sp., an agent of amoebic gill disease of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). Int. J. Parasitol. 2007, 37:1469-1481.
93. Young N.D., Dykova I., Nowak B.F., Morrison R.N. Neoparamoeba perurans is a cosmopolitan aetiological agent of amoebic gill disease. Dis. Aquat. Org. 2008, 78:217-223.
94. Young N.D., Dykova I., Nowak B.F., Morrison R.N. Development of a diagnostic PCR to detect Neoparamoeba perurans, agent of amoebic gill disease. J. Fish Dis. 2008, 29:1-11.
95. Zilberg D., Munday B.L. Chapter 1: Phylum amoebozoa. Viral, Bacterial and Fungal Infections 2006, 3:1-15. CABI, UK. P.T.K. Woo (Ed.).