Secure attachment promotes the development of effortful control in boys

Attachment and Human Development

Volumn 17, Issue 3, 2015, Pages 319-335

  Viddal, Kristine Rensvik ^a   Berg Nielsen, Turid Suzanne ^b,c   Wan, Ming Wai ^d   Green, Jonathan ^d   Hygen, Beate Wold ^a   Wichstrøm, Lars ^a,e  

^a NORWEGIAN UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY   (Norway)

^b Center for Child and Adolescent Mental Health   (Norway)

^c NORWEGIAN UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY   (Norway)

^d UNIVERSITY OF MANCHESTER   (United Kingdom)

^e TRONDHEIM UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL   (Norway)

Author keywords

attachment; effortful control; gender, longitudinal; self regulation; temperament

Indexed keywords

CHILD; CHILD BEHAVIOR; COMPREHENSION; FEMALE; HUMAN; MALE; OBJECT RELATION; PRESCHOOL CHILD; PSYCHOLOGY; SEX DIFFERENCE; SOCIOECONOMICS; TEMPERAMENT;

CHILD; CHILD BEHAVIOR; CHILD, PRESCHOOL; COMPREHENSION; FEMALE; HUMANS; MALE; OBJECT ATTACHMENT; SEX FACTORS; SOCIOECONOMIC FACTORS; TEMPERAMENT;

EID: 84929840292     PISSN: 14616734     EISSN: 14692988     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/14616734.2014.999098     Document Type: Article

References (95)

1. M.Ainsworth,, M.Blehar,, E.Waters,, & S.Wall, (1978). Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the strange situation. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
2. A.P.Anokhin,, W.Lutzenberger,, A.Nikolaev,, & N.Birbaumer, (2000). Complexity of electrocortical dynamics in children: Developmental aspects. Developmental Psychobiology, 36(1), 9–22. doi:10.1002/(sici)1098-2302(200001)36:1<9::aid-dev2>3.0.co;2-5
3. L.Barone,, M.Del Giudice,, A.Fossati,, F.Manaresi,, B.A.Perinetti,, L.Colle,, & F.Veglia, (2009). Psychometric properties of the manchester child attachment story task: An Italian multicentre study. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 33(2), 185–190. doi:10.1177/0165025409103134
4. J.Belsky, (1997). Variation in susceptibility to environmental influence: An evolutionary argument. Psychological Inquiry, 8(3), 182–186. doi:10.1207/s15327965pli0803_3
5. K.Bernard,, & M.Dozier, (2010). Examining infants’ cortisol responses to laboratory tasks among children varying in attachment disorganization: Stress reactivity or return to baseline? Developmental Psychology, 46(6), 1771–1778. doi:10.1037/a0020660
6. D.J.Bridgett,, M.A.Gartstein,, S.P.Putnam,, K.O.Lance,, E.Iddins,, R.Waits,, & L.Lee, (2011). Emerging effortful control in toddlerhood: The role of infant orienting/regulation, maternal effortful control, and maternal time spent in caregiving activities. Infant Behavior & Development, 34(1), 189–199. doi:10.1016/j.infbeh.2010.12.008
7. J.J.Campos,, C.B.Frankel,, & L.Camras, (2004). On the nature of emotion regulation. Child Development, 75(2), 377–394. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00681.x
8. J.Cassidy, (1994). Emotion regulation: Influences of attachment relationships. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 59(2–3), 228–249. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5834.1994.tb01287.x
9. J.Cassidy,, & J.J.Mohr, (2001). Unsolvable fear, trauma, and psychopathology: Theory research, and clinical considerations related to disorganized attachment across the life span. Clinical Psychology-Science and Practice, 8(3), 275–298. doi:10.1093/clipsy/8.3.275
10. S.E.Christ,, D.A.White,, J.E.Brunstrom,, & R.A.Abrams, (2003). Inhibitory control following perinatal brain injury. Neuropsychology, 17(1), 171–178. doi:10.1037/0894-4105.17.1.171
11. A.H.Claussen,, P.C.Mundy,, S.A.Mallik,, & J.C.Willoughby, (2002). Joint attention and disorganized attachment status in infants at risk. Development and Psychopathology, 14(2), 279–291. doi:10.1017/S0954579402002055
12. J.DeCoster,, A.M.R.Iselin,, & M.Gallucci, (2009). A conceptual and empirical examination of justifications for dichotomization. Psychological Methods, 14, 349–366. doi:10.1037/a0016956
13. M.L.Dunn,, & M.L.Dunn, (1997). Examiner’s manual for the PPVT-III: Peabody picture vocabulary test (3rd ed.). Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.
14. N.M.Else-Quest, (2012). Gender differences in temperament. In M.Zentner & R.Shiner (Eds.), Handbook of temperament (pp. 479–496). New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
15. N.M.Else-Quest,, J.S.Hyde,, H.H.Goldsmith,, & C.A.Van Hulle, (2006). Gender differences in temperament: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 132(1), 33–72. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.1.33
16. R.A.Fabes,, C.L.Martin,, & L.D.Hanish, (2003). Young children’s play qualities in same-, other-, and mixed-sex peer groups. Child Development, 74(3), 921–932. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00576
17. R.M.P.Fearon,, & J.Belsky, (2004). Attachment and attention: Protection in relation to gender and cumulative social-contextual adversity. Child Development, 75(6), 1677–1693. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00809.x
18. R.P.Fearon,, M.J.Bakermans-Kranenburg,, M.H.Van Ijzendoorn,, A.M.Lapsley,, & G.I.Roisman, (2010). The significance of insecure attachment and disorganization in the development of children’s externalizing behavior: A meta-analytic study. Child Development, 81(2), 435–456. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01405.x
19. R.C.Fraley,, & S.J.Spieker, (2003). Are infant attachment patterns continuously or categorically distributed? A taxometric analysis of strange situation behavior. Developmental Psychology, 39(3), 387–404. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.39.3.387
20. A.Futh,, T.G.O’Connor,, C.Matias,, J.Green,, & S.Scott, (2008). Attachment narratives and behavioral and emotional symptoms in an ethnically diverse, at-risk sample. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 47(6), 709–718. doi:10.1097/CHI.0b013e31816bff65
21. M.A.Gartstein,, D.J.Bridgett,, B.N.Young,, J.Panksepp,, & T.Power, (2013). Origins of effortful control: Infant and parent contributions. Infancy, 18(2), 149–183. doi:10.1111/j.1532-7078.2012.00119.x
22. C.George,, N.Kaplan,, & M.Main, (1996). Adult Attachment Interview Protocol. Unpublished manuscript. University of California at Berkeley.
23. R.Goodman, (1997). The strengths and difficulties questionnaire: A research note. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 38(5), 581–586. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.1997.tb01545.x
24. J.Green,, C.Stanley,, R.Goldwyn,, & V.Smith, (2007). Coding Manual for the Manchester Child Attachment Story Task. Unpublished manuscript. University of Manchester.
25. J.Green,, C.Stanley,, & S.Peters, (2007). Disorganized attachment representation and atypical parenting in young school age children with externalizing disorder. Attachment & Human Development, 9(3), 207–222. doi:10.1080/14616730701453820
26. J.Green,, C.Stanley,, V.Smith,, & R.Goldwyn, (2000). A new method of evaluating attachment representations in young school-age children: The manchester child attachment story task. Attachment & Human Development, 2(1), 48–70. doi:10.1080/146167300361318
27. A.M.Groh,, R.P.Fearon,, M.J.Bakermans-Kranenburg,, M.H.Van Ijzendoorn,, R.D.Steele,, & G.I.Roisman, (2014). The significance of attachment security for children’s social competence with peers: A meta-analytic study. Attachment & Human Development, 16(2), 103–136. doi:10.1080/14616734.2014.883636
28. C.A.Gross,, & N.E.Hansen, (2000). Clarifying the experience of shame: The role of attachment style, gender, and investment in relatedness. Personality and Individual Differences, 28(5), 897–907. doi:10.1016/s0191-8869(99)00148-8
29. H.Z.Gvirts,, H.Harari,, Y.Braw,, D.Shefet,, S.G.Shamay-Tsoory,, & Y.Levkovitz, (2012). Executive functioning among patients with borderline personality disorder (BPD) and their relatives. Journal of Affective Disorders, 143(1–3), 261–264. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2012.05.007
30. D.A.Hackman,, & M.J.Farah, (2009). Socioeconomic status and the developing brain. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 13(2), 65–73. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2008.11.003
31. H.W.Hanlon,, R.W.Thatcher,, & M.J.Cline, (1999). Gender differences in the development of EEG coherence in normal children. Developmental Neuropsychology, 16(3), 479–506. doi:10.1207/s15326942dn1603_27
32. D.G.Horvitz,, & D.J.Thompson, (1952). A generalization of sampling without replacement from a finite universe. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 47, 663–685. doi:10.1080/01621459.1952.10483446
33. B.W.Hygen,, I.C.Guzey,, J.Belsky,, T.S.Berg-Nielsen,, & L.Wichstrøm, (2014). Catechol-O-methyltransferase Val158Met genotype moderates the effect of disorganized attachment on social development in young children. Development and Psychopathology, FirstView, 1–15. doi:10.1017/S0954579414000492
34. International Labour Office. (1990). International standard classification of occupations: ISCO-88. Geneva: Author.
35. J.Kagan,, & N.A.Fox, (2006). Biology, culture, and temperamental biases. In N.Eisenberg (Ed.), Social, emotional, and personality development (6th ed., Vol. 3, pp. 167–225). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
36. B.P.L.Kanacri,, C.Pastorelli,, N.Eisenberg,, A.Zuffiano,, & G.V.Caprara, (2013). The development of prosociality from adolescence to early adulthood: The role of effortful control. Journal of Personality, 81(3), 302–312. doi:10.1111/jopy.12001
37. R.Kobak,, J.Cassidy,, K.Lyons-Ruth,, & Y.Ziv, (2006). Attachment, stress, and psychopathology: A developmental pathways model. In D.Cicchetti & D.Cohen (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology: Theory and method (Vol. 1, pp. 333–369). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
38. G.Kochanska, (2001). Emotional development in children with different attachment histories: The first three years. Child Development, 72(2), 474–490. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00291
39. G.Kochanska,, K.T.Murray,, & E.T.Harlan, (2000). Effortful control in early childhood: Continuity and change, antecedents, and implications for social development. Developmental Psychology, 36(2), 220–232. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.36.2.220
40. G.Kochanska,, R.A.Philibert,, & R.A.Barry, (2009). Interplay of genes and early mother-child relationship in the development of self-regulation from toddler to preschool age. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50(11), 1331–1338. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2008.02050.x
41. C.Leaper, (2002). Parenting girls and boys. In M.H.Bornstein (Ed.), Handbook of Parenting (2nd ed., Vol. 1, pp. 189–226). Hoboken, NJ: Erlbaum.
42. R.K.Lenroot,, N.Gogtay,, D.K.Greenstein,, E.M.Wells,, G.L.Wallace,, L.S.Clasen,, & J.N.Giedd, (2007). Sexual dimorphism of brain developmental trajectories during childhood and adolescence. Neuroimage, 36(4), 1065–1073. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2007.03.053
43. M.Leuzinger-Bohleber,, K.L.Laezer,, N.Pfenning-Meerkoetter,, T.Fischmann,, A.Wolff,, & J.Green, (2011). Psychoanalytic treatment of ADHD children in the frame of two extraclinical studies: The Frankfurt prevention study and the EVA study. Journal of Infant, Child, and Adolescent Psychotherapy, 10(1), 32–50. doi:10.1080/15289168.2011.575703
44. M.D.Lewis,, & R.M.Todd, (2007). The self-regulating brain: Cortical-subcortical feedback and the development of intelligent action. Cognitive Development, 22(4), 406–430. doi:10.1016/j.cogdev.2007.08.004
45. C.P.Li-Grining, (2007). Effortful control among low-income preschoolers in three cities: Stability, change, and individual differences. Developmental Psychology, 43(1), 208–221. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.43.1.208
46. M.M.Loman,, & M.R.Gunnar, (2010). Early experience and the development of stress reactivity and regulation in children. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 34(6), 867–876. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2009.05.007
47. N.L.McElwain,, C.Booth-LaForce,, J.E.Lansford,, X.Y.Wu,, & W.J.Dyer, (2008). A process model of attachment-friend linkages: Hostile attribution biases, language ability, and mother-child affective mutuality as intervening mechanisms. Child Development, 79(6), 1891–1906. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01232.x
48. E.Mezzacappa, (2004). Alerting, orienting, and executive attention: Developmental properties and sociodemographic correlates in an epidemiological sample of young, urban children. Child Development, 75(5), 1373–1386. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00746.x
49. H.Minnis,, J.Green,, T.G.O’Connor,, A.Liew,, D.Glaser,, E.Taylor,, & F.A.Sadiq, (2009). An exploratory study of the association between reactive attachment disorder and attachment narratives in early school-age children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50(8), 931–942. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2009.02075.x
50. H.Minnis,, W.Read,, B.Connolly,, A.Burston,, T.S.Schumm,, S.Putter-Lareman,, & J.Green, (2010). The computerised manchester child attachment story task: A novel medium for assessing attachment patterns. International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 19(4), 233–242. doi:10.1002/mpr.324
51. C.Moutsiana,, P.Fearon,, L.Murray,, P.Cooper,, I.Goodyer,, T.Johnstone,, & S.Halligan, (2014). Making an effort to feel positive: Insecure attachment in infancy predicts the neural underpinnings of emotion regulation in adulthood. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 55(9), 999–1008. doi:10.1111/jcpp.12198
52. A.K.Mutlu,, M.Schneider,, M.Debbane,, D.Badoud,, S.Eliez,, & M.Schaer, (2013). Sex differences in thickness, and folding developments throughout the cortex. Neuroimage, 82, 200–207. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2013.05.076
53. J.T.Nigg, (2006). Temperament and developmental psychopathology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47(3–4), 395–422. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2006.01612.x
54. E.O’Connor,, J.F.Bureau,, K.McCartney,, & K.Lyons-Ruth, (2011). Risks and outcomes associated with disorganized/controlling patterns of attachment at age three years in the national institute of child health & human development study of early child care and youth development. Infant Mental Health Journal, 32(4), 450–472. doi:10.1002/imhj.20305
55. L.L.Ontai,, & R.A.Thompson, (2002). Patterns of attachment and maternal discourse effects on children’s emotion understanding from 3 to 5 years of age. Social Development, 11(4), 433–450. doi:10.1111/1467-9507.00209
56. S.Pallini,, R.Baiocco,, B.H.Schneider,, S.Madigan,, & L.Atkinson, (2014). Early child-parent attachment and peer relations: A meta-analysis of recent research. Journal of Family Psychology, 28(1), 118–123. doi:10.1037/a0035736
57. S.Pallini,, & F.Laghi, (2012). Attention and attachment related behavior toward professional caregivers in child care centers: A new measure for Toddlers. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 173(2), 158–174. doi:10.1080/00221325.2011.584330
58. P.Pechtel,, & D.A.Pizzagalli, (2011). Effects of early life stress on cognitive and affective function: An integrated review of human literature. Psychopharmacology, 214(1), 55–70. doi:10.1007/s00213-010-2009-2
59. M.Pinquart,, C.Feussner,, & L.Ahnert, (2013). Meta-analytic evidence for stability in attachments from infancy to early adulthood. Attachment & Human Development, 15(2), 189–218. doi:10.1080/14616734.2013.746257
60. M.I.Posner,, M.K.Rothbart,, B.E.Sheese,, & Y.Tang, (2007). The anterior cingulate gyrus and the mechanism of self-regulation. Cognitive Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience, 7(4), 391–395. doi:10.3758/cabn.7.4.391
61. S.P.Putnam,, & M.K.Rothbart, (2006). Development of short and very short forms of the children’s behavior questionnaire. Journal of Personality Assessment, 87(1), 102–112. doi:10.1207/s15327752jpa8701_09
62. M.K.Rothbart, (2011). Becoming who we are: Temperament and personality in development. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
63. M.K.Rothbart,, S.A.Ahadi,, & K.L.Hershey, (1994). Temperament and social behavior in childhood. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly-Journal of Developmental Psychology, 40(1), 21–39.
64. M.K.Rothbart,, S.A.Ahadi,, K.L.Hershey,, & P.Fisher, (2001). Investigations of temperament at three to seven years: The children’s behavior questionnaire. Child Development, 72(5), 1394–1408. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00355
65. M.K.Rothbart,, & J.E.Bates, (2006). Temperament. In N.Eisenberg (Ed.), Social, emotional, and personality development (6th ed., Vol. 3, pp. 99–166). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
66. M.K.Rothbart,, & D.Derryberry, (1981). Development of individual differences in temperament. In M.E.Lamb & A.L.Brown (Eds.), Advances in developmental psychology (pp. 37–86). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
67. M.K.Rothbart,, D.Derryberry,, & K.L.Hershey, (2000). Stability of temperament in childhood: Laboratory infant assessment to parent report at seven years. In V.J.Molfese & D.L.Molfese (Eds.), Temperament and personality development across the life span (pp. 85–119). Mahwah, NJ: L. Erlbaum Associates.
68. M.R.Rueda, (2012). Effortful control. In M.Zentner (Ed.), Handbook of temperament (pp. 145–167). New York, NY: The Guildford Press.
69. B.H.Schneider,, L.Atkinson,, & C.Tardif, (2001). Child-parent attachment and children’s peer relations: A quantitative review. Developmental Psychology, 37, 86–100. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.37.1.86
70. A.N.Schore, (2001). Effects of a secure attachment relationship on right brain development, affect regulation, and infant mental health. Infant Mental Health Journal, 22(1–2), 7–66. doi:10.1002/1097-0355(200101/04)22:1<7::aid-imhj2>3.0.co;2-n
71. G.Spangler,, & P.Zimmermann, (2014). Emotional and adrenocortical regulation in early adolescence: Prediction by attachment security and disorganization in infancy. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 38(2), 142–154. doi:10.1177/0165025414520808
72. T.L.Spinrad,, N.Eisenberg,, B.Gaertner,, T.Popp,, C.L.Smith,, A.Kupfer,, & C.Hofer, (2007). Relations of maternal socialization and toddlers’ effortful control to children’s adjustment and social competence. Developmental Psychology, 43(5), 1170–1186. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.43.5.1170
73. L.A.Sroufe, (2005). Attachment and development: A prospective, longitudinal study from birth to adulthood. Attachment & Human Development, 7(4), 349–367. doi:10.1080/14616730500365928
74. H.Steele,, M.Steele,, C.Croft,, & P.Fonagy, (1999). Infant-mother attachment at one year predicts children’s understanding of mixed emotions at six years. Social Development, 8(2), 161–178. doi:10.1111/1467-9507.00089
75. T.H.Sveen,, T.S.Berg-Nielsen,, S.Lydersen,, & L.Wichstrom, (2013). Detecting psychiatric disorders in preschoolers: Screening with the strengths and difficulties questionnaire. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 52(7), 728–736. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2013.04.010
76. J.F.Thayer,, A.L.Hansen,, E.Saus-Rose,, & B.H.Johnsen, (2009). Heart rate variability, prefrontal neural function, and cognitive performance: The neurovisceral integration perspective on self-regulation, adaptation, and health. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 37(2), 141–153. doi:10.1007/s12160-009-9101-z
77. R.A.Thompson, (2006). The development of the person: Social understanding, relationships, conscience, self. In N.Eisenberg (Ed.), Social, emotional, and personality development (6th ed., Vol. 3, pp. 24–98). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
78. R.A.Thompson, (2008). Early attachment and later developement: Familiar questions, new answers. In J.Cassidy & P.R.Shaver (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research and clinical applications (pp. 348–382). New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
79. G.Trommsdorff, (2009). Culture and development of self-regulation. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 3(5), 687–701. doi:10.1111/j.1751-9004.2009.00209.x
80. C.Valiente,, N.Eisenberg,, T.L.Spinrad,, R.Haugen,, M.S.Thompson,, & A.Kupfer, (2013). Effortful control and impulsivity as concurrent and longitudinal predictors of academic achievement. Journal of Early Adolescence, 33(7), 946–972. doi:10.1177/0272431613477239
81. M.H.van Ijzendoorn,, & M.J.Bakermans-Kranenburg, (2012). Integrating temperament and attachment: The differential susceptibility paradigm. In M.Zentner & R.Shiner (Eds.), Handbook of temperament (pp. 403–424). London: The Guilford Press.
82. M.H.van Ijzendoorn,, C.Vereijken,, M.J.Bakermans-Kranenburg,, & J.M.Riksen-Walraven, (2004). Assessing attachment security with the attachment Q sort: Meta-analytic evidence for the validity of the observer AQS. Child Development, 75(4), 1188–1213. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00733.x
83. B.E.Vaughn,, & N.Shin, (2011). Attachment, temperament, and adaptation. One long argument. In D.Cicchetti & G.I.Roisman (Eds.), Minnesota symposia on child psychology. The origins and organization of adaptation and maladaptation (Vol. 36, pp. 55–107). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
84. J.I.Vondra,, D.S.Shaw,, L.Swearingen,, M.Cohen,, & E.B.Owens, (2001). Attachment stability and emotional and behavioral regulation from infancy to preschool age. Development and Psychopathology, 13(1), 13–33. doi:10.1017/s095457940100102x
85. M.W.Wan,, & J.Green, (2010). Negative and atypical story content themes depicted by children with behaviour problems. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 51(10), 1125–1131. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02239.x
86. E.Waters,, & K.E.Deane, (1985). Defining and assessing individual differences in attachment relationships - Q-methodology and the organization of behavior in infancy and early-childhood. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 50(1–2), 41–65. doi:10.2307/3333826
87. M.K.Weinberg,, E.Z.Tronick,, & J.F.Cohn, (1999). Gender differences in emotional expressivity and self-regulation during early infancy. Developmental Psychology, 35(1), 175–188. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.35.1.175
88. D.M.Werling,, & D.H.Geschwind, (2013). Sex differences in autism spectrum disorders. Current Opinion in Neurology, 26(2), 146–153. doi:10.1097/WCO.0b013e32835ee548
89. S.Whittle,, M.Yucel,, A.Fornito,, A.Barrett,, S.J.Wood,, D.I.Lubman,, & N.B.Allen, (2008). Neuroanatomical correlates of temperament in early adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 47(6), 682–693. doi:10.1097/CHI.0b013e31816bffca
90. L.Wichstrom,, J.Belsky,, & T.S.Berg-Nielsen, (2013). Preschool predictors of childhood anxiety disorders: A prospective community study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 54(12), 1327–1336. doi:10.1111/jcpp.12116
91. L.Wichstrom,, T.S.Berg-Nielsen,, A.Angold,, H.L.Egger,, E.Solheim,, & T.H.Sveen, (2012). Prevalence of psychiatric disorders in preschoolers. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 53(6), 695–705. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2011.02514.x
92. K.T.Williams,, & J.Wang, (1997). Technical references to the peabody picture vocabulary test -third edition (PPVT-III) (3rd.). Circle pines, MN: American Guidance Service.
93. M.Zalewski,, L.J.Lengua,, P.A.Fisher,, A.Trancik,, N.R.Bush,, & A.N.Meltzoff, (2012). Poverty and single parenting: Relations with preschoolers’ cortisol and effortful control. Infant and Child Development, 21(5), 537–554. doi:10.1002/icd.1759
94. Q.Zhou,, L.J.Lengua,, & Y.Wang, (2009). The relations of temperament reactivity and effortful control to children’s adjustment problems in China and the United States. Developmental Psychology, 45(3), 724–739. doi:10.1037/a0013776
95. P.Zimmermann,, M.A.Maier,, M.Winter,, & K.E.Grossmann, (2001). Attachment and adolescents’ emotion regulation during a joint problem-solving task with a friend. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 25(4), 331–343.