Management of valvular disease in pregnancy: A global perspective

European Heart Journal

Volumn 36, Issue 18, 2015, Pages 1078-1089b

  Sliwa, Karen ^a,b,c   Johnson, Mark R ^d   Zilla, Peter ^a,c   Roos Hesselink, Jolien W ^e  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CAPE TOWN   (South Africa)

^b UNIVERSITY OF THE WITWATERSRAND   (South Africa)

^c SOUTH AFRICAN MEDICAL RESEARCH COUNCIL   (South Africa)

^d IMPERIAL COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

^e ERASMUS MEDICAL CENTER   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

Rheumatic heart disease in pregnancy; Valve disease; Valve thrombosis

Indexed keywords

ANTICOAGULANT AGENT; BETA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; DIGOXIN; DIURETIC AGENT; FIBRINOLYTIC AGENT; HYDRALAZINE; NITRIC ACID DERIVATIVE; TISSUE PLASMINOGEN ACTIVATOR;

ANTICOAGULANT THERAPY; AORTA DISEASE; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CLINICAL EVALUATION; CONGENITAL HEART DISEASE; DELIVERY; DEVICE THERAPY; DIURETIC THERAPY; FEMALE; FIBRINOLYTIC THERAPY; HEART FAILURE; HEART VALVE BIOPROSTHESIS; HEART VALVE PROSTHESIS; HUMAN; LABOR; LABOR MANAGEMENT; MECHANICAL HEART VALVE; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; PREGNANCY; PREGNANCY OUTCOME; PREGNANT WOMAN; PRENATAL CARE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROSTHETIC VALVE THROMBOSIS; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL (TOPIC); REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; TRANSLUMINAL VALVULOPLASTY; TREATMENT OUTCOME; VALVULAR HEART DISEASE; VALVULOPLASTY; GRAFT OCCLUSION, VASCULAR; HEART VALVE DISEASES; HEART VALVE REPLACEMENT; PREGNANCY COMPLICATIONS, CARDIOVASCULAR; PRENATAL DIAGNOSIS; PROCEDURES; PROSTHESIS; RHEUMATIC HEART DISEASE;

BALLOON VALVULOPLASTY; DELIVERY, OBSTETRIC; FEMALE; GRAFT OCCLUSION, VASCULAR; HEART FAILURE; HEART VALVE DISEASES; HEART VALVE PROSTHESIS; HEART VALVE PROSTHESIS IMPLANTATION; HUMANS; PREGNANCY; PREGNANCY COMPLICATIONS, CARDIOVASCULAR; PRENATAL CARE; PRENATAL DIAGNOSIS; PROSTHESIS DESIGN; RHEUMATIC HEART DISEASE; RISK ASSESSMENT;

EID: 84929611784     PISSN: 0195668X     EISSN: 15229645     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehv050     Document Type: Review

References (62)

1. Kassebaum NJ, Bertozzi-Villa A, Coggeshall MS, Shackelford KA, Steiner C, Heuton KR, Gonzalez-Medina D, Barber R, Huynh C, Dicker D, Templin T, Wolock TM, Ozgoren AA, Abd-Allah F, Abera SF, Achoki T, Adelekan A, Ademi Z, Adou AK, Adsuar JC, Agardh EE, Akena D, Alasfoor D, Alemu ZA, Alfonso-Cristancho R, Alhabib S, Ali R, Al Kahbouri MJ, Alla F, Allen PJ, Almazroa MA, Alsharif U, Alvarez E, Alvis-Guzman N, Amankwaa AA, Amare AT, Amini H, Ammar W, Antonio CA, Anwari P, Arnlov J, Arsenijevic VS, Artaman A, Asad MM, Asghar RJ, Assadi R, Atkins LS, Badawi A, Balakrishnan K, Basu A, Basu S, Beardsley J, Bedi N, Bekele T, Bell ML, Bernabe E, Beyene TJ, Bhutta Z, Bin Abdulhak A, Blore J, Basara BB, Bose D, Breitborde N, Cardenas R, Castaneda-Orjuela CA, Castro RE, Catala-Lopez F, Cavlin A, Chang JC, Che X, Christophi CA, Chugh SS, Cirillo M, Colquhoun SM, Cooper LT, Cooper C, da Costa Leite I, Dandona L, Dandona R, Davis A, Dayama A, Degenhardt L, De Leo D, Del Pozo-Cruz B, Deribe K, Dessalegn M, Deveber GA, Dharmaratne SD, Dilmen U, Ding EL, Dorrington RE, Driscoll TR, Ermakov SP, Esteghamati A, Faraon EJ, Farzadfar F, Felicio MM, Fereshtehnejad SM, de Lima GM, Forouzanfar MH, Franca EB, Gaffikin L, Gambashidze K, Gankpe FG, Garcia AC, Geleijnse JM, Gibney KB, Giroud M, Glaser EL, Goginashvili K, Gona P, Gonzalez-Castell D, Goto A, Gouda HN, Gugnani HC, Gupta R, Gupta R, Hafezi-Nejad N, Hamadeh RR, Hammami M, Hankey GJ, Harb HL, Havmoeller R, Hay S, Pi IB, Hoek HW, Hosgood HD, Hoy DG, Husseini A, Idrisov BT, Innos K, Inoue M, Jacobsen KH, Jahangir E, Jee SH, Jensen PN, Jha V, Jiang G, Juel K, Kabagambe EK, Kan H, Karam NE, Karch A, Karema CK, Kaul A, Kawakami N, Kazanjan K, Kazi DS, Kemp AG, Kengne AP, Kereselidze M, Khader YS, Khalifa SE, Khan EA, Khang YH, Knibbs L, Kokubo Y, Kosen S, Defo BK, Kulkarni C, Kulkarni VS, Kumar GA, Kumar K, Kumar RB, Kwan G, Lai T, Lalloo R, Lam H, Lansingh VC, Larsson A, Lee JT, Leigh J, Leinsalu M, Leung R, Li X, Li Y, Li Y, Liang J, Liang X, Lim SS, Lin HH, Lipshultz SE, Liu S, Liu Y, Lloyd BK, London SJ, Lotufo PA, Ma J, Ma S, Machado VM, Mainoo NK, Majdan M, Mapoma CC, Marcenes W, Marzan MB, Mason-Jones AJ, Mehndiratta MM, Mejia-Rodriguez F, Memish ZA, MendozaW, Miller TR, Mills EJ, Mokdad AH, Mola GL, Monasta L, de la Cruz Monis J, Hernandez JC, Moore AR, Mori R, Mueller UO, Mukaigawara M, Naheed A, Naidoo KS, Nand D, Nangia V, Nash D, Nejjari C, Nelson RG, Neupane SP, Newton CR, Ng M, Nieuwenhuijsen MJ, Nisar MI, Nolte S, Norheim OF, Nyakarahuka L, Oh IH, Ohkubo T, Olusanya BO, Omer SB, Opio JN, Orisakwe OE, Pandian JD, Papachristou C, Park JH, Caicedo AJ, Patten SB, Paul VK, Pavlin BI, Pearce N, Pereira DM, Pesudovs K, Petzold M, Poenaru D, Polanczyk GV, Polinder S, Pope D, Pourmalek F, Qato D, Quistberg DA, Rafay A, Rahimi K, Rahimi-Movaghar V, Ur Rahman S, Raju M, Rana SM, Refaat A, Ronfani L, Roy N, Pimienta TG, Sahraian MA, Salomon J, Sampson U, Santos IS, Sawhney M, Sayinzoga F, Schneider IJ, Schumacher A, Schwebel DC, Seedat S, Sepanlou SG, Servan-Mori EE, Shakh-Nazarova M, Sheikhbahaei S, Shibuya K, Shin HH, Shiue I, Sigfusdottir ID, Silberberg DH, Silva AP, Singh JA, Skirbekk V, Sliwa K, Soshnikov SS, Sposato LA, Sreeramareddy CT, Stroumpoulis K, Sturua L, Sykes BL, Tabb KM, Talongwa RT, Tan F, Teixeira CM, Tenkorang EY, Terkawi AS, Thorne-Lyman AL, Tirschwell DL, Towbin JA, Tran BX, Tsilimbaris M, Uchendu US, Ukwaja KN, Undurraga EA, Uzun SB, Vallely AJ, van Gool CH, Vasankari TJ, Vavilala MS, Venketasubramanian N, Villalpando S, Violante FS, Vlassov VV, Vos T, Waller S, Wang H, Wang L, Wang SX, Wang Y, Weichenthal S, Weiderpass E, Weintraub RG, Westerman R, Wilkinson JD, Woldeyohannes SM, Wong JQ, Wordofa MA, Xu G, Yang YC, Yano Y, Yentur GK, Yip P, Yonemoto N, Yoon SJ, Younis MZ, Yu C, Jin KY, El Sayed Zaki M, Zhao Y, Zheng Y, Zhou M, Zhu J, Zou XN, Lopez AD, Naghavi M, Murray CJ, Lozano R. Global, regional, and national levels and causes of maternal mortality during 1990-2013: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013. Lancet 2014;384:980-1004.
2. Siu SC, Sermer M, Colman JM, Alvarez AN, Mercier LA, Morton BC, Kells CM, Bergin ML, Kiess MC, Marcotte F, Taylor DA, Gordon EP, Spears JC, Tam JW, Amankwah KS, Smallhorn JF, Farine D, Sorensen S, Cardiac Disease in Pregnancy I. Prospective multicenter study of pregnancy outcomes in women with heart disease. Circulation 2001;104:515-521.
3. Sliwa K, Libhaber E, Elliot C, Momberg Z, Osman A, Zühlke Z, Lachmann T, Nicholson L, Thienemann F, Roos-Hesselink J, Anthony J. Spectrum of cardiac disease in a low resource cohort in South Africa. Heart 2014; doi: 10.1136/ heartjnl-2014-306199.
4. Diao M, KaneA, NdiayeMB, MbayeA, Bodian M, DiaMM,Sarr M, Kane A, Monsuez JJ, Ba SA. Pregnancy in women with heart disease in sub-Saharan Africa. Arch Cardiovasc Dis 2011;104:370-374.
5. Carapetis JR, Steer AC, Mulholland EK, Weber M. The global burden of group A streptococcal diseases. Lancet Infect Dis 2005;5:685-694.
6. Steer AC, Carapetis JR, Nolan TM, Shann F. Systematic review of rheumatic heart disease prevalence in children in developing countries: The role of environmental factors. J Paediatr Child Health 2002;38:229-234.
7. Marijon E, Ou P, Celermajer DS, Ferreira B, Mocumbi AO, Jani D, Paquet C, Jacob S, Sidi D, Jouven X. Prevalence of rheumatic heart disease detected by echocardiographic screening. N Engl J Med 2007;357:470-476.
8. Carapetis JR, Hardy M, Fakakovikaetau T, Taib R, Wilkinson L, Penny DJ, Steer AC. Evaluation of a screening protocol using auscultation and portable echocardiography to detect asymptomatic rheumatic heart disease in Tongan schoolchildren. Nat Clin Pract Cardiovasc Med 2008;5:411-417.
9. Roos-Hesselink JW, Ruys TP, Stein JI, Thilen U,Webb GD, Niwa K, Kaemmerer H, Baumgartner H, Budts W, Maggioni AP, Tavazzi L, Taha N, Johnson MR, Hall R. ROPAC Investigators. Outcome of pregnancy in patients with structural or ischaemic heart disease: results of a registry of the European Society of Cardiology. Eur Heart J 2013;34:657-665.
10. JastrowN, Meyer P, Khairy P, Mercier LA, Dore A, Marcotte F, Leduc L. Prediction of complications in pregnantwomen with cardiac diseases referred to a tertiary center. Int J Cardiol 2011;151:209-213.
11. Regitz-Zagrosek V, Blomstrom Lundqvist C, Borghi C, Cifkova R, Ferreira R, Foidart JM, Gibbs JS, Gohlke-Baerwolf C, Gorenek B, Iung B, Kirby M, Maas AH, Morais J, Nihoyannopoulos P, Pieper PG, Presbitero P, Roos-Hesselink JW, Schaufelberger M, Seeland U, Torracca L, Bax J, Auricchio A, Baumgartner H, Ceconi C, Dean V, Deaton C, Fagard R, Funck-Brentano C, Hasdai D, Hoes A, Knuuti J, Kolh P, McDonagh T, Moulin C, Poldermans D, Popescu BA, Reiner Z, Sechtem U, Sirnes PA, Torbicki A, Vahanian A, Windecker S, Aguiar C, Al-Attar N, Garcia AA, Antoniou A, Coman I, Elkayam U, Gomez-Sanchez MA, Gotcheva N, Hilfiker-Kleiner D, Kiss RG, Kitsiou A, Konings KT, Lip GY, Manolis A, Mebaaza A, Mintale I, Morice MC, Mulder BJ, Pasquet A, Price S, Priori SG, Salvador MJ, Shotan A, Silversides CK, Skouby SO, Stein JI, Tornos P, Vejlstrup N,Walker F,Warnes C. ESC Guidelines on the management of cardiovascular diseases during pregnancy: The Task Force on the Management of Cardiovascular Diseases during Pregnancy of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). Eur Heart J 2011;32:3147-3197.
12. Balci A, Sollie-Szarynska KM, van der Bijl AG, RuysTP, Mulder BJ, Roos-HesselinkJW, van Dijk AP,Wajon EM, Vliegen HW, DrenthenW, Hillege HL, Aarnoudse JG, van Veldhuisen DJ, Pieper PG, investigators Z-I. Prospective validation and assessment of cardiovascular and offspring risk models for pregnant women with congenital heart disease. Heart 2014;100:1373-1381.
13. Hameed A, Karaalp IS, Tummala PP,Wani OR, Canetti M, AkhterMW, Goodwin I, Zapadinsky N, Elkayam U. The effect of valvular heart disease on maternal and fetal outcome of pregnancy. J Am Coll Cardiol 2001;37:893-899.
14. Mahli A, Izdes S, Coskun D. Cardiac operations during pregnancy: review of factors influencing fetal outcome. Ann Thorac Surg 2000;69:1622-1626.
15. John AS, Gurley F, Schaff HV, Warnes CA, Phillips SD, Arendt KW, Abel MD, Rose CH, Connolly HM. Cardiopulmonary bypass during pregnancy. Ann Thorac Surg 2011;91:1191-1196.
16. Sliwa K, Carrington M, Mayosi BM, Zigiriadis E, Mvungi R, Stewart S. Incidence and characteristics of newly diagnosed rheumatic heart disease in urban African adults: insights from the heart of Soweto study. Eur Heart J 2010;31:719-727.
17. ZhangW,MondoC, Okello E, Musoke C, Kakande B, NyakoojoW, Kayima J, Freers J. Presenting features of newly diagnosed rheumatic heart disease patients in Mulago Hospital: A pilot study. Cardiovasc J Afr 2013;24:28-33.
18. Marcus RH, Sareli P, Pocock WA, Barlow JB. The spectrum of severe rheumatic mitral valve disease in a developing country. Correlations among clinical presentation, surgical pathologic findings, and hemodynamic sequelae. Ann Intern Med 1994;120:177-183.
19. Kim JB, Kim HJ, Moon DH, Jung SH, Choo SJ, Chung CH, Song H, Lee JW. Long-term outcomes after surgery for rheumatic mitral valve disease: valve repair versus mechanical valve replacement. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 2010;37:1039-1046.
20. Wang YC, Tsai FC, Chu JJ, Lin PJ. Midterm outcomes of rheumatic mitral repair versus replacement. Int Heart J 2008;49:565-576.
21. Yankah C, Fynn-Thompson F, Antunes M, Edwin F, Yuko-Jowi C, Mendis S, Thameur H, Urban A, Bolman R III. Cardiac surgery capacity in sub-Saharan Africa: quo vadis? Thoracic Cardiovasc Surgeon 2014;62:393-401.
22. Elkayam U, Bitar F. Valvular heart disease and pregnancy: part II: prosthetic valves. J Am Coll Cardiol 2005;46:403-410.
23. Yun KL, Miller DC, Moore KA, Mitchell RS, Oyer PE, Stinson EB, Robbins RC, Reitz BA, Shumway NE. Durability of the Hancock MO bioprosthesis compared with standard aortic valve bioprostheses. Ann Thorac Surg 1995;60:S221-S228.
24. North RA, Sadler L, Stewart AW, McCowan LM, Kerr AR, White HD. Long-term survival and valve-related complications in young women with cardiac valve replacements. Circulation 1999;99:2669-2676.
25. Remenyi B,Webb R, Gentles T, Russell P, Finucane K, Lee M, Wilson N. Improved long-term survival for rheumatic mitral valve repair compared to replacement in the young. World J Pediatr Congenit Heart Surg 2013;4:155-164.
26. Jamieson WR, Miller DC, Akins CW, Munro AI, Glower DD, Moore KA, Henderson C. Pregnancy and bioprostheses: influence on structural valve deterioration. Ann Thorac Surg 1995;60:S282-S286; discussion S7.
27. Badduke BR, Jamieson WR, Miyagishima RT, Munro AI, Gerein AN, MacNab J, Tyers GF. Pregnancy and childbearing in a population with biologic valvular prostheses. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1991;102:179-186.
28. Jamieson WR. Modern cardiac valve devices-bioprostheses and mechanical prostheses: state of the art. J Card Surg 1993;8:89-98.
29. Avila WS, Rossi EG, Grinberg M, Ramires JA. Influence of pregnancy after bioprosthetic valve replacement in youngwomen: A prospective five-year study. J Heart Valve Dis 2002;11:864-869.
30. Zilla P, Brink J, Human P, Bezuidenhout D. Prosthetic heart valves: catering for the few. Biomaterials 2008;29:385-406.
31. El-Hamamsy I, Eryigit Z, Stevens LM, Sarang Z, George R, Clark L, Melina G, Takkenberg JJ, Yacoub MH. Long-term outcomes after autograft versus homograft aortic root replacement in adults with aortic valve disease: A randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2010;376:524-531.
32. Yacoub MH, El-Hamamsy I, Sievers HH, Carabello BA, Bonow RO, Stelzer P, da Costa FD, Schafers HJ, Skillington P, Charitos EI, Luciani GB, Takkenberg JJ. Underuse of the Ross operation-A lost opportunity. Lancet 2014;384:559-560.
33. Volpe M, Magri P, Rao MAE, Cangianiello S, DeNicola L, Mele AF, Memoli B, Enea I, Rubattu S, Gigante B, Trimarco B, Epstein M, Condorelli M. Intrarenal determinants of sodium retention in mild heart failure. Effects of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition. Hypertension 1997;30:168-176.
34. Heuvelman HJ, Arabkhani B, Cornette JM, Pieper PG, Bogers AJ, Takkenberg JJ, Roos-Hesselink JW. Pregnancy outcomes in women with aortic valve substitutes. Am J Cardiol 2013;111:382-387.
35. Arabkhani B, Heuvelman HJ, Bogers AJ, Mokhles MM, Roos-Hesselink JW, Takkenberg JJ. Does pregnancy influence the durability of human aortic valve substitutes? J Am Coll Cardiol 2012;60:1991-1992.
36. Vahanian A, Alfieri O, Andreotti F, Antunes MJ, Baron-Esquivias G, Baumgartner H, Borger MA, Carrel TP, De Bonis M, Evangelista A, Falk V, Iung B, Lancellotti P, Pierard L, Price S, Schafers HJ, Schuler G, Stepinska J, Swedberg K, Takkenberg J, Von Oppell UO, Windecker S, Zamorano JL, Zembala M. Joint Task Force on the Management of Valvular Heart Disease of the European Society of, CardiologyEuropean Association for Cardio-Thoracic, Surgery. Guidelines on the management of valvular heart disease (version 2012). Eur Heart J 2012;33:2451-2496.
37. Buschmann J, Muller A, Feldman K, Tervoort TA, Fessel G, Snedeker JG, Giovanoli P, Calcagni M. Small hook thread (Quill) and soft felt internal splint to increase the primary repair strength of lacerated rabbit Achilles tendons: biomechanical analysis and considerations for hand surgery. Clin Biomech 2011;26:626-631.
38. Pieper PG, Balci A, Van Dijk AP. Pregnancy in women with prosthetic heart valves. Neth Heart J 2008;16:406-411.
39. Vitale N, DeFeo M,De Santo LS, Pollice A, Tedesco N, Cotrufo M. Dose-dependent fetal complications of warfarin in pregnantwomenwith mechanical heart valves. J Am Coll Cardiol 1999;33:1637-1641.
40. Cotrufo M, De Feo M, De Santo LS, Romano G, Della Corte A, Renzulli A, Gallo C. Risk of warfarin during pregnancy with mechanical valve prostheses. Obstet Gynecol 2002;99:35-40.
41. Iturbe-Alessio I, Fonseca MC, Mutchinik O, Santos MA, Zajarias A, Salazar E. Risks of anticoagulant therapy in pregnant women with artificial heart valves. N Engl J Med 1986;315:1390-1393.
42. Elkayam U, Goland S. The search for a safe and effective anticoagulation regimen in pregnant women with mechanical prosthetic heart valves. J Am Coll Cardiol 2012;59: 1116-1118.
43. Kaneko T, Aranki SF. Anticoagulation for prosthetic valves. Thrombosis 2013;2013: 346752.
44. McLintock C, McCowan LM, North RA. Maternal complications and pregnancy outcome in women with mechanical prosthetic heart valves treated with enoxaparin. BJOG 2009;116:1585-1592.
45. Yinon Y, Siu SC, Warshafsky C, Maxwell C, McLeod A, Colman JM, Sermer M, Silversides CK. Use of low molecular weight heparin in pregnant women with mechanical heart valves. Am J Cardiol 2009;104:1259-1263.
46. De Santo LS, Romano G, Della Corte A, D'Oria V, Nappi G, Giordano S, Cotrufo M, De Feo M. Mechanical aortic valve replacement in young women planning on pregnancy: maternal and fetal outcomes under low oral anticoagulation, a pilot observational study on a comprehensive pre-operative counseling protocol. J AmColl Cardiol 2012;59:1110-1115.
47. Sillesen M, Hjortdal V, Vejlstrup N, Sorensen K. Pregnancy with prosthetic heart valves-30 years' nationwide experience in Denmark. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 2011; 40:448-454.
48. Soma-Pillay P, Nene Z, MacDonald AP. The effect of warfarin dosage on maternal and fetal outcomes in pregnant women with prosthetic heart valves. Obstetr Med 2011;4:24-27.
49. Skyler JS, Bergenstal R, Bonow RO, Buse J, Deedwania P, Gale EA, Howard BV, Kirkman MS, Kosiborod M, Reaven P, Sherwin RS. Intensive glycemic control and the prevention of cardiovascular events: implications of the ACCORD, ADVANCE, and VA Diabetes Trials: A position statement of the American Diabetes Association and a Scientific Statement of the American College of Cardiology Foundation and the American Heart Association. J Am Coll Cardiol 2009;53:298-304.
50. Prendiville W, Elbourne D, McDonald S. Active versus expectant management in the third stage of labour (Cochrane Review). Prophylactic oxytocin for the third stage of labour to prevent postpartum haemorrhage. Westhoff G1, Cotter AM, Tolosa JE). Cochran Database System Rev 2013;10:CD001808. doi: 10.1002/ 14651858.CD001808.pub2.
51. Langesaeter E, Rosseland LA, Stubhaug A. Haemodynamic effects of oxytocin in women with severe preeclampsia. Int J Obstetr Anesth 2011;20:26-29.
52. Pinder AJ, Dresner M,CalowC, Shorten GD, O'Riordan J, Johnson R. Haemodynamic changes caused by oxytocin during caesarean section under spinal anaesthesia. Int J Obstetr Anesth 2002;11:156-159.
53. Thomas JS, Koh SH, Cooper GM. Haemodynamic effects of oxytocin given as i.v. bolus or infusion on women undergoing Caesarean section. Brit J Anaesth 2007;98: 116-119.
54. Davies GA, Tessier JL,Woodman MC, Lipson A, Hahn PM. Maternal hemodynamics after oxytocin bolus compared with infusion in the third stage of labor: A randomized controlled trial. Obstet Gynecol 2005;105:294-299.
55. Habib G, Hoen B, Tornos P, Thuny F, Prendergast B, Vilacosta I, Moreillon P, de Jesus Antunes M, Thilen U, Lekakis J, Lengyel M, Muller L, Naber CK, Nihoyannopoulos P, Moritz A, Zamorano JL. Guidelines ESCCfP. Guidelines on the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of infective endocarditis (new version 2009): The Task Force on the Prevention, Diagnosis, and Treatment of Infective Endocarditis of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). Endorsed by the European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases (ESCMID) and the International Society of Chemotherapy (ISC) for Infection and Cancer. Eur Heart J 2009;30:2369-2413.
56. Montorsi P, De Bernardi F, Muratori M, Cavoretto D, Pepi M. Role of cine-fluoroscopy, transthoracic, and transesophageal echocardiography in patients with suspected prosthetic heart valve thrombosis. Am J Cardiol 2000;85: 58-64.
57. Elkayam U, Akhter MW, Singh H, Khan S, Bitar F, Hameed A, Shotan A. Pregnancy-associated cardiomyopathy: clinical characteristics and a comparison between early and late presentation. Circulation 2005;111:2050-2055.
58. Ozkan M, Cakal B, Karakoyun S, Gursoy OM, Cevik C, Kalcik M, Oguz AE, Gunduz S, Astarcioglu MA, Aykan AC, Bayram Z, Biteker M, Kaynak E, Kahveci G, Duran NE, Yildiz M. Thrombolytic therapy for the treatment of prosthetic heart valve thrombosis in pregnancy with low-dose, slow infusion of tissue-type plasminogen activator. Circulation 2013;128:532-540.
59. Arnoni RT, Arnoni AS, Bonini RC, de Almeida AF, Neto CA, Dinkhuysen JJ, Issa M, Chaccur P, Paulista PP. Risk factors associated with cardiac surgery during pregnancy. Ann Thorac Surg 2003;76:1605-1608.
60. Weiss BM, von Segesser LK, Alon E, Seifert B, Turina MI. Outcome of cardiovascular surgery and pregnancy: A systematic review of the period 1984-1996. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1998;179:1643-1653.
61. Sliwa K, Fett J, Elkayam U. Peripartum cardiomyopathy. Lancet 2006;368:687-693.
62. Sadler L, McCowan L, White H, Stewart A, Bracken M, North R. Pregnancy outcomes and cardiac complications in women with mechanical, bioprosthetic and homograft valves. BJOG 2000;107:245-253.