Class advantage and the gender divide: Flexibility on the job and at home

American Journal of Sociology

Volumn 120, Issue 2, 2014, Pages 395-431

  Gerstel, Naomi ^a   Clawson, Dan ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ADULT; FEMALE; HUMAN; MALE; MEDICAL PROFESSION; MIDDLE AGED; PSYCHOLOGY; QUESTIONNAIRE; SEX RATIO; SOCIOECONOMICS; UNITED STATES; WORK SCHEDULE;

ADULT; FEMALE; HEALTH OCCUPATIONS; HUMANS; MALE; MIDDLE AGED; QUESTIONNAIRES; SEX DISTRIBUTION; SOCIOECONOMIC FACTORS; UNITED STATES; WORK SCHEDULE TOLERANCE;

EID: 84927789075     PISSN: 00029602     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1086/678270     Document Type: Article

References (101)

1. Acker, Joan. 2006. “Inequality Regimes: Gender, Class, and Race in Organizations.” Gender and Society 20:441-64.
2. Aiken, Linda H., Sean P. Clarke, Dougles M. Sloane, Julie Sochalski, and Jeffrey H. Silber. 2002. “Hospital Nurse Staffing and Patient Mortality, Nurse Burnout, and Job Dissatisfaction.” Journal of the American Medical Association 288:1987-93.
3. Antiel, Ryan M., Scott M. Thompson, Darcy A. Reed, Katherin M. James, Jon C. Tilburt, Michael P. Bannon, Philip R. Fischer, and David R. Farley. 2010. “ACGME Duty-Hour Recommendations—a National Survey of Residency Program Directors.” New England Journal of Medicine 363 (8): e12.
4. Applebaum, Eileen, Peter Berg, Ann Frost, and Gil Preuss. 2003. “The Effects of Work Restructuring on Low-Wage, Low-Skilled Workers in U.S. Hospitals.” Pp. 77-117 in Low Wage America: How Employers Are Reshaping Opportunity in the Workplace, edited by Eileen Applebaum, Annette Bernhardt, and Richard Murnane. New York: Russell Sage.
5. Applebaum, Eileen, and Lonnie Golden. 2003. “The Failure to Reform the Workday.” Challenge 46:79-92.
6. Armenia, Amy, Naomi Gerstel, and Coady Wing. 2010. “Estimating and Predicting Compliance with the FMLA: Pressures from Above and Below.” Paper presented at the meeting of the American Sociological Association, Atlanta.
7. Armenia, Amy, Naomi Gerstel, and Coady Wing. 2014. “Workplace Compliance with the Law: The Case of the Family and Medical Leave Act.” Work and Occupations 41:277-304.
8. Barnes, Riche Jeneen Daniel. 2008. “Black Women Have Always Worked: Is There a Work-Family Conflict among the Black Middle Class?” Pp. 189-209 in The Changing Landscape of Work and Family in the American Middle Class, edited by Elizabeth Rudd and Lara Descartes. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books.
9. Bergmann, Barbara. 2009. “Long Leaves, Child Well-Being, and Gender Equality.” Pp. 67-78 in Gender Inequality, edited by Janet Gornick and Marcia Meyers. New York: Verso.
10. Bernhardt, Annette, Ruth Milkman, Nik Theodore, Douglas Heckathorn, Mirabai Auer, James DeFilippis, Ana Luz Gonzalez, Victor Narro, Jason Perelshteyn, Diana Polson, and Michael Spille. 2010. “Broken Laws, Unprotected Workers: Violations of Employment and Labor Laws in American Cities.” http://www.unprotectedworkers.org/index.php/broken_laws/index.
11. Bianchi, Suzanne M., John P. Robinson, and Melissa A. Milkie. 2006. Changing Rhythms of American Family Life. New York: Russell Sage.
12. Blair-Loy, Mary. 2003. Competing Devotions: Career and Family among Women Executives. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
13. Boulis, Ann K., and Jerry Jacobs. 2008. The Changing Face of Medicine: Women Doctors and the Evolution of Health Care in America. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
14. Brooks, Joanna Veazey, and Charles Bosk. 2012. “Remaking Surgical Socialization: Work Hour Restrictions, Rites of Passage, and Occupational Identity.” Social Science and Medicine 75:1625-32.
15. Carre, Francoise, Chris Tilly, Maarten Van Klaveren, and Dorothea Voss-Dahm. 2010. “Retail Jobs in Comparative Perspective.” Pp. 211-68 in Low Wage Work in the Wealthy World, edited by Jerome Gautie and John Schmitt. New York: Russell Sage.
16. Cassell, Joan. 1998. The Woman in the Surgeon’s Body. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
17. Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services. 2012. “National Health Education 2012 Fact Sheet.” www.cms.gov/NationalHealthExpenditureData/2_ NHE_Fact Sheet.
18. Christensen, Kathleen, and Barbara Schneider. 2010. “Introduction: Evidence of the Worker and Workplace Mismatch.” Pp. 1-16 in Workplace Flexibility: Realigning Twentieth-Century Jobs to a Twenty-First-Century Workforce, edited by Kathleen Christensen and Barbara Schneider. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
19. Christensen, Kathleen, and Barbara Schneider, eds. 2011. “Work, Family, and Workplace Flexibility.” Special issue, Annals of the American Academy ofPolitical and Social Science 638:6-138.
20. Clawson, Dan, and Naomi Gerstel. 2014. Unequal Time: Gender, Class and Family in Employment Schedules. New York: Russell Sage.
21. Collins, Patricia Hill. 2010. “The Meanings of Motherhood in Black Culture and Black Mother-Daughter Relationships.” Pp. 285-95 in Gender through the Prism of Difference, edited by Maxine B. Zinn, Pierrette Hondagneu-Sotelo, and Michael Mess-ner. New York: Oxford University Press.
22. Connell, R. W. 1995. Masculinities. Berkeley: University of California Press.
23. Craig, Lyn, and Killian Mullana. 2011. “How Mothers and Fathers Share Childcare: A-Cross National Time-Use Comparison.” American Sociological Review 76:834-61.
24. Crocker, Jillian, and Dan Clawson. 2012. “Buying Time: Gendered Patterns in Union Contracts.” Social Problems 59:459-80.
25. Deutsch, Francine. 1999. Halving It All: How Equally Shared Parenting Works. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
26. Deutsch, Francine 2007. “Undoing Gender.” Gender and Society 21:106-27.
27. Dimaggio, Paul. 1997. “Culture and Cognition.” Annual Review of Sociology 23:263-87.
28. Dodson, Lisa, and J. Dickert. 2004. “Girls’ Family Labor in Low-Income Households: A Decade of Qualitative Research.” Journal of Marriage and Family 66:318-32.
29. England, Paula. 2010. “The Gender Revolution: Uneven and Stalled.” Gender and Society 24:149-66.
30. Feldblum, Chai. 2010. “Workplace Flexibility 2010.” www.workplaceflexibility2010.org
31. Ferree, Myra Marx. 2010. “Filling the Glass: Gender Perspectives on Family.” Journal of Marriage and Family 72:420-39.
32. Galinsky, Ellen, Kelly Sakai, Sheila Eby, James T. Bond, and Tyler Wigton. 2010. “Employer-Provided Workplace Flexibility.” Pp. 132-56 in Workplace Flexibility:
33. Realigning 20th-Century Jobs to a 21st-Century Workforce, edited by Kathleen Christensen and Barbara Schneider. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
34. Gareis, Karen C., Rosalind C. Barnett, and Robert T. Brennan. 2003. “Individual and Crossover Effects of Work-Schedule Fit: A Within-Couple Analysis.” Journal of Marriage and Family 6:1041-54.
35. Garey, Anita. 1995. “Constructing Motherhood on the Night Shift: ‘Working Mothers’ as ‘Stay-at-Home Moms.” Qualitative Sociology 18:415-37.
36. Garey, Anita. 1999. Weaving Work and Motherhood. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
37. Gerstel, Naomi. 2011. “Rethinking Families and Community: The Color, Class, and Centrality of Extended Kin Ties.” Sociological Forum 26:1-20.
38. Gerstel, Naomi, and Dan Clawson. 2001. “Unions’ Responses to Family Concerns.” Social Problems 48:277-98.
39. Gerstel, Naomi, and Dan Clawson. In press. “When Work Becomes Family: The Case of Low-Wage Caregivers.” Work and Family in the New Economy, edited by Erin Kelly and Samantha Ammons. Bingley: Emerald Press.
40. Gerstel, Naomi, Dan Clawson, and Dana Huyser. 2007. “Explaining Job Hours of Physicians, Nurses, EMTs, and Nursing Assistants: Gender, Class, Jobs, and Family.” Pp. 369-403 in Workplace Temporalities, edited by B. Rubin. Amsterdam: JAI.
41. Golden, Lonnie. 2008. “Limited Access: Disparities in Flexible Work Schedules and Work-at-Home.” Journal of Family and Economic Issues 29:86-109.
42. Golden, Lonnie, and Deborah Figart. 2000. Working Time: International Trends, Theory, and Workplace Policy. New York: Routledge.
43. Goldin, Claudia, and Lawrence Katz. 2011. “The Cost of Workplace Flexibility for High-Powered Professionals.” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 638:45-67.
44. Greenhouse, Linda. 2003. “The Supreme Court: States’ Rights; Justices, 6-3, Rule Workers Can Sue States over Leave.” New York Times, May 28.
45. Gupta, Sanjiv. 2007. “Autonomy, Dependence, or Display? The Relationship between Married Women’s Earnings and Housework.” Journal of Marriage and the Family 69:399-417.
46. Hartman, Heidi, and Vicky Lovell. 2009. “A U.S. Model for Universal Sickness and Family Leave.” Pp. 231-54 in Gender Inequality, edited by J. Gornick and M. Meyer. New York: Verso.
47. Hays, Sharon. 1996. Cultural Contradictions of Motherhood. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
48. Hegewisch, Ariane, Hannah Liepmann, Jeffrey Hayes, and Heidi Hartmann. 2010. “Separate and Not Equal? Gender Segregation in the Labor Market and the Gender Wage Gap.” Briefing paper. Institute for Women’s Policy Research, Washington, DC.
49. Hill, Jeffrey, Joseph Grzywacz, Sarah Allen, Victoria Blanchard, Christina Matz-Costa, Sandee Shulkin, and Marchie Pitt-Catsouphes. 2008. “Defining and Conceptualizing Workplace Flexibility.” Community, Work, and Family 11:140-63.
50. Iglehart, John K. 2008. “Revisiting Duty-Hour Limits—IOM Recommendations for Patient Safety and Resident Education.” New England Journal of Medicine 359:2633-35.
51. Iglehart, John K. 2010. “The ACGME’s Final Duty-Hour Standards—Special PGY-1 Limits and Strategic Mapping.” New England Journal of Medicine 363:1589-91.
52. Jacobs, Jerry A., and Kathleen Gerson. 2004. The Time Divide. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
53. Kalleberg, Arne. 2003. “Flexible Firms and Labor Market Segmentation: Effects of Workplace Restructuring on Workers.” Work and Occupations 30:154-75.
54. Kalleberg, Arne 2011. Good Jobs, Bad Jobs: The Rise of Polarized and Precarious Employment Systems in the United States, 1970s to 2000s. New York: Russell Sage.
55. Kelly, Erin, S. Ammons, K. Chermack, and P. Moen. 2011. “Gendered Challenges, Gendered Response: Confronting the Ideal Worker Norm in a White-Collar Organization.” Gender and Society 24:281-303.
56. Kelly, Erin, and Alexandra Kalev. 2006. “Managing Flexible Work Arrangements in U.S. Organizations: Formalized Discretion or ‘a Right to Ask?’” Socio-Economic Review 4:379-416.
57. Lambert, Susan. 2008. “Women and Work: Difficulties of Opting Out.” Paper presented at The Women and Work Conference, University of Massachusetts, Amherst.
58. Lambert, Susan J., Anna Haley-Lock, and Julie R. Henly. 2011. “Schedule Flexibility in Jobs with Scarce and Fluctuating Hours: Unanticipated Consequences and Promising Directions.” Working paper. University of Chicago Work Scheduling Study.
59. Landrigan, Christopher P., Jeffrey M. Rothschild, John W. Cronin, Rainu Kaushal, Elisabeth Burdick, Joel T. Katz, Craig M. Lilly, Peter H. Stone, Steven W. Lockley, David W. Bates, and Charles A. Czeisler. 2004. “Effect of Reducing Interns’ Work Hours on Serious Medical Errors in Intensive Care Units.” New England Journal ofMedicine 351:1838-48.
60. Lerner, Barron H. 2006. When Illness Goes Public: Celebrity Patients and How We Look at Medicine. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
61. Lopez, Steven Henry. 2006. “Culture Change Management in Long-Term Care: A Shop-Floor View.” Politics and Society 34:55-79.
62. Lorber, Judith. 2005. Breaking the Bowls. New York: W. W. Norton.
63. Lyness, Karen S., Janet C. Gornick, Pamela Stone, and Angela R. Grotto. 2012. “It’s All about Control: Worker Control over Schedule and Hours in Cross-National Context.” American Sociological Review 77:1023-104.
64. Macdonald, Cameron. 2009. “What’s Culture Got to Do with It? Mother Ideologies as Barriers to Gender Equality.” Pp. 411-37 in Gender Inequality, edited by Janet Gornick and Marcia Meyers. New York: Verso.
65. Mechanic, David, Donna D. McAlpine, and Marsha Rosenthal. 2001. “Are Patients’ Office Visits with Physicians Getting Shorter?” New England Journal of Medicine 344:198-204.
66. Ng, Ignace, and Ali Dastmalchian. 1998. “Organizational Flexibility in Canada: A Study of Control and Safeguard Rules.” International Journal of Human Resources 9:445-56.
67. Parsons, Talcott, and Robert Bales. 1955. Family, Socialization, and Interaction Process. New York: Routledge.
68. Piore, Michael J. 1986. “Perspectives on Labor Market Flexibility.” Industrial Relations 25:146-66.
69. Presser, Harriet. 2003. Working in a 24/7 Economy: Challenges for American Families. New York: Russell Sage.
70. Pyke, Karen. 1996. “Class-Based Masculinities: The Interdependence of Gender, Class, and Interpersonal Power.” Gender and Society 10:527-49.
71. Reis, Ricardo. 2012. “Evaluating Fiscal Policy in 2007-2009: Looking in the Right Places.” Paper presented at the Russell Sage Foundation, March 14.
72. Ridgeway, Cecilia. 2011. Framed by Gender. New York: Oxford University Press.
73. Robins, Natalie. 1995. The Girl Who Died Twice: The Libby Zion Case and the Hidden Hazards of Hospitals. New York: Dell.
74. Rogers, Ann E., Wei-Ting Hwang, Linda D. Scott, Linda H. Aiken, and David F. Dinges. 2004. “The Working Hours of Hospital Staff Nurses and Patient Safety.” Health Affairs 23 (4): 202-12.
75. Sarkisian, Natalia, and Naomi Gerstel. 2012. Nuclear Family Values, Extended Family Lives: The Power of Race, Class, and Gender. New York: Routledge.
76. Schieman, Scott, Melissa Milkie, and Paul Glavin. 2009. “When Work Interferes with Life: Work-Nonwork Interference and the Influence of Work-Related Demands and Resources.” American Sociological Review 75:966-88.
77. Schor, Juliet. 1992. The Overworked American: The Unexpected Decline of Leisure. New York: Basic.
78. Sewell, William. 1992. “A Theory of Structure: Duality, Agency, and Transformation.” American Journal of Sociology 98:1-29.
79. Shows, Carla, and Naomi Gerstel. 2009. “Fathering, Class, and Gender: A Comparison of Physicians and Emergency Medical Technicians.” Gender and Society 23:161-87.
80. Sibert, Karen. 2011. “Don’t Quit This Day Job.” New York Times, June 11.
81. Staiger, Douglas O., David I. Auerbach, and Peter I. Buerhaus. 2010. “Trends in the Work Hours of Physicians in the United States.” Journal of the American Medical Association 303 (8): 747-53.
82. Stainback, Kevin, and Donald Tomaskovic-Devey. 2012. Documenting Desegregation. New York: Russell Sage.
83. Standing, Guy. 2011. The Precariat: The New Dangerous Class. New York: Bloomsbury.
84. Steinbrook, Robert. 2002. “The Debate over Residents’ Work Hours.” New England Journal of Medicine 347:1296-1302.
85. Stone, Pamela. 2007. Opting Out. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.
86. Swanberg, Jennifer, Marcie Pitt-Catsouphes, and Krista Drescher-Burke. 2005. “The Question of Justice: Disparities in Employees’ Access to Flexible Schedule Arrangements.” Journal of Family Issues 2:866-95.
87. Szymczak, Julia, and Charles Bosk. 2012. “Training for Efficiency: Work, Time, and Systems-Based Practice in Medical Residency.” Journal of Health and Social Behavior 53:344-58.
88. Thornton, Patricia H., William Ocasio, and Michael Lounsbury. 2012. The Institutional Logics Perspective. New York: Oxford University Press.
89. Trinkoff, Alison, Jeanne Geiger-Brown, Barbara Brady, Jane Lipscomb, and Carles Muntaner. 2006. “How Long and How Much Are Nurses Now Working?” American Journal of Nursing 106:60-71.
90. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. 2010. “Women in the Labor force: A Databook, 2010 Edition.” Annual Social and Economic Supplements, 1988-2009, Current Population Survey, U.S. Department of Labor.
91. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Health Resources and Services Administration. 2010. “The Registered Nurse Population: Findings from the 2008 National Sample Survey of Registered Nurses.” http://bhpr.hrsa.gov/healthworkforce/rnsurveys /rnsurveyfinal.pdf.
92. Volpp, Kevin G., Amy K. Rosen, Paul R. Rosenbaum, Patrick S. Romano, Orit Even-Shoshan, Yanli Wang, Lisa Bellini, Tiffany Behringer, and Jeffrey H. Silber. 2007. “Mortality among Hospitalized Medicare Beneficiaries in the First 2 Years Following ACGME Resident Duty-Hour Reform.” Journal of the American Medical Association 298:975-83.
93. Watson, Liz, and Jennifer E. Swanberg. 2010. “Flexible Workplace Solutions for Low-Wage Hourly Workers: A Framework for a National Conversation.” Report of Workplace Flexibility 2010 and the Institute for Workplace Innovation, Georgetown Law, Washington, DC.
94. Webster, Edward, Rob Lambert, and Andries Bezuidenhout. 2008. Grounding Globalization: Labor in the Age of Insecurity. New York: Wiley-Blackwell.
95. West, Candice, and Don H. Zimmerman. 1987. “Doing Gender.” Gender and Society 1:125-51.
96. West, Colin P., Angelina D. Tan, and Thomas M. Habermann. 2009. “Association of Resident Fatigue and Distress with Perceived Medical Errors.” Journal of the American Medical Association 302:1294-1300.
97. Williams, Christine. 1992. “The Glass Escalator: Hidden Advantages for Men in the ‘Female’ Professions.” Social Problems 39:253-67.
98. Williams, Joan. 2006. “One Sick Child Away from Being Fired: When Opting Out Is Not an Option.” Report from the Center for Work-Life Law, San Francisco.
99. Williams, Joan 2010. “The Odd Disconnect: Our Family-Hostile Public Policy.” Pp. 107-219 in Workplace Flexibility: Realigning Twentieth-Century Jobs to a Twenty-First-Century Workforce, edited by Kathleen Christensen and Barbara Schneider. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
100. Zerubavel, Eviatar. 1979. Patterns of Time in Hospital Life: A Sociological Perspective. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
101. Zerubavel, Eviatar 1981. Hidden Rhythms. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.