Methodologies Used for the Characterization of Nano- and Microcapsules

Nano- and Microencapsulation for Foods

Volumn 9781118292334, Issue , 2014, Pages 65-94

  Nguyen, Minh Hiep ^a   Aripin, Nurul Fadhilah Kamalul ^a   Chen, Xi G ^b   Park, Hyun Jin ^a  

^a Korea University   (South Korea)

^b OCEAN UNIVERSITY OF CHINA   (China)

Author keywords

Acoustic spectroscopy; Confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM); Dynamic light scattering (DLS); Electrophoretic light scattering; Laser diffraction; Microcapsules; Nanocapsules; Transmission electron microscopy (TEM)

Indexed keywords

ACOUSTIC SPECTROSCOPY; CONFOCAL MICROSCOPY; DIFFRACTION; DYNAMIC LIGHT SCATTERING; HIGH RESOLUTION TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPY; LIGHT TRANSMISSION; MICROSTRUCTURE; PARTICLE SIZE ANALYSIS;

CONFOCAL LASER SCANNING MICROSCOPY; CONFOCAL-LASER-SCANNING-MICROSCOPY; DYNAMIC LIGHT SCATTERING; DYNAMIC LIGHT-SCATTERING; DYNAMIC-LIGHT SCATTERINGS; ELECTROPHORETIC LIGHT SCATTERING; LASER DIFFRACTIONS; MICROCAPSULES; TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPY;

PARTICLE SIZE;

EID: 84926398396     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1002/9781118292327.ch4     Document Type: Chapter

References (130)

1. Alba, F., Crawley, G.M., Fatkin, J., Higgs, D.M.J., and Kippax, P.G. 1999. Acoustic spectroscopy as a technique for the particle sizing of high concentration colloids, emulsions and suspensions. Colloid and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects153, 495-502.
2. Allen, T. 1990. Particle Size Measurement, 4th edn. London: Chapman and Hall.
3. Aripin, N.F.K., Hashim, R., Heidelberg, T., Kweon, D.K., and Park, H.J. 2012. Effect of vesicle's membrane packing behaviour on skin penetration of model lipophilic drug. Journal of Microencapsulation, DOI:10.3109/02652048.2012.720723.
4. Ayache, J., Beaunier, L., Boumendil, J., Ehret, G., and Laub, D. 2010. Sample Preparation Handbook for Transmission Electron Microscopy: Techniques. New York: Springer Science+Business Media.
5. Baier, G., Siebert, J.M., Landfester, K., and Musyanovych, A. 2012. Surface click reactions on polymeric nanocapsules for versatile functionalization. Macromolecules45, 3419-3427.
6. Bang, S.H., Hwang, I.C., Yu, Y.M., Park, E.H., Kwon, H.R., and Park, H.J. 2011. Application of the combined used of ultrasonic homogenization and electro-spraying in the formation of nano carrier systems. Journal of Microencapsulation28, 557-567.
7. Barea, M.J., Jenkins, M.J., Lee, Y.S., Johnson, P., and Bridson, R.H. 2012. Encapsulation of liposomes within pH responsive microspheres for oral colonic drug delivery. International Journal of Biomaterials, doi:10.1155/2012/458712.
8. Beattie, J. 1998. Size-exclusion chromatography. Methods in Molecular Biology88, 65-69.
9. Bhosale, P.S. and Berg, J.C. 2010. Acoustic spectroscopy of colloids dispersed in a polymer gel system. Langmuir26, 14423-14426.
10. Burgess, D.J., Duffy, E., Etzler, F., and Hickey, A.J. 2004. Particle size analysis: AAPS workshop report, co-sponsored by the Food and Drug Administration and the United States Pharmacopeia. The AAPS Journal6, 1-12.
11. Buxbaum, E. 2011a. Chapter 1. In Biophysical Chemistry of Proteins: An Introduction to Laboratory Methods. New York: Springer Science+Business Media.
12. Buxbaum, E. 2011b. Chapter 25. In Biophysical Chemistry of Proteins: An Introduction to Laboratory Methods. New York: Springer Science+Business Media.
13. Carrique, F., Arroyo, F.J., and Delgado, A.V. 2001. Sedimentation velocity and potential in a concentrated colloidal suspension. Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects195, 157-169.
14. Cevc, G. 1995. Material transport across permeability. In Lipowsky, R. and Sackmann, E. (eds.) Handbook of Biological Physics, vol. 1. Oxford: Elsevier B.V.
15. Cevc, G., Schätzlein, A., and Blume, G. 1995. Transdermal drug carrier: Basic properties, optimization and transfer efficiency in the case of epicutaneously applied peptides. Journal of Controlled Release36, 3-16.
16. Champion, J.A., Katare, Y.K., and Mitragotri, S. 2007. Particle shape: A new design parameter for micro- and nanoscale drug delivery carriers. Journal of Controlled Release121, 3-9.
17. Chiu, G.N.C., Abraham, S.A., Ickenstein, L.M., Rebecca, N., Karlsson, G., Edwards, K., Wasan, E.K., and Bally, M.B. 2005. Encapsulation of doxorubicin into thermosensitive liposomes via complexationwith the transition metalmanganese. Journal ofControlledRelease104, 271-288.
18. Clark, N.A., Lunacek, J.H., and Benedek, G.B. 1970. A study of Brownian motion using light scattering. American Journal of Physics38, 575-585.
19. Clogston, D.J., and Patri, A.K. 2011. Zeta potential measurement. Methods in Molecular Biology697, 63-70.
20. Cutler, P. 2004. Protein purification protocols. Methods in Molecular Biology244, 239-252.
21. Degen, P., Shukla, A., Boetcher, U., and Refage, H. 2008. Self-assembled ultra-thin coating of octadecyltrichlorosilane (OTS) formed at the surface of iron oxide nanoparticles. Colloid and Polymer Science286, 159-168.
22. Delgado, A.V., González-Caballero, F., Hunter, R.J., Koopal, L.K., and Lyklema, J. 2005. Measurement and interpretation of electrokinetic phenomena (IUPAC technical report). Pure and Applied Chemistry77, 1753-1805.
23. Delgado, M., Lázaro, A., Mazo, J., and Zalba, B. 2012. Review on phase change material emulsions and microencapsulated phase change material slurries: Materials, heat transfer studies and applications. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews16, 253-273.
24. Dickinson, E. 1992. An Introduction to Food Colloids. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
25. Di Marzio, L., Marianecci, C., Petrone, M., Rinaldi, F., and Carafa, M. 2011. Novel pH-sensitive non-ionic surfactant vesicles: Comparison between Tween 21 and Tween 20. Colloids Surface B: Biointerfaces82, 18-24.
26. Dubey, V., Mishra, D., Asthana, A., and Jain, N.K. 2006. Transdermal delivery of a pineal hormone: Melatonin via elastic liposomes. Biomaterials27, 3491-3496.
27. Dukhin, A.S., and Goetz, P.J. 1996. Acoustic and electroacoustic spectroscopy. Langmuir12, 4336-4344.
28. Echlin, P. 2009. Handbook of Sample Preparation for Scanning Electron Microscopy and X-Ray Microanalysis. New York: Springer Science+Business Media.
29. El Zaafarany, G.M., Awad, G.A.S., Holayel, S.M., and Mortada, N.D. 2010. Role of edge activators and surface charge in developing ultradeformable vesicles with enhanced skin delivery. International Journal of Pharmacy397, 164-172.
30. Engelke,M., Bojarski, P.,Bloβ, R., andDiehl,H. 2001. Tamoxifen perturbs lipid bilayer order and permeability: Comparison of DSC, fluorescence anisotropy, Laurdan generalized polarization and carboxyfluorescein leakage studies. Biophysics Chemistry90, 157-173.
31. Essa, E.A., Bonner, M.C., and Barry, B.W. 2004. Electrically assisted skin delivery of liposomal estradiol: Phospholipids as damage retardant. Journal of Controlled Release95, 535-546.
32. Evans, D.F. and Wennerström, H. 1999. The Colloidal Domain: Where Physics, Chemistry, Biology, and Technology Meet. New York:Wiley-VCH.
33. Faust,W.D. 2001. 63rd Porcelain Enamel Institute Technical Forum. In Cordell, K. (ed.) Particle size in recirculated powder. Ceramic Engineering & Science Proceedings22, 65-75.
34. Fegui, A.E.,Dubot, P., Loftsson, T., and Amiel, C. 2012. Triclosan-loaded with high encapsulation efficiency into PLA nanoparticles coated with β-cyclodextrin polymer. Journal of Inclusion Phenomena and Macrocyclic Chemistry, doi:10.1007/s10847-012-0128-6.
35. Felix, N.L.L., Khairul, A.K., and Ahmad, T.A.K. 2012. Size distribution analysis of Kaolin using laser diffraction technique. Advanced Materials Research341, 108-112.
36. Filipović-Greić, J., Bećirević-LaćanM., Škalko, N., and Jalšenjak, I. 1996. Chitosan microspheres of nifedipine and nifedipine-cyclodextrin inclusion complexes. International Journal of Pharmaceutics135, 183-190.
37. Fuchigamin, T., Kitamoto,Y., and Namiki,Y. 2012. Size-tunable drug-delivery capsules composed of a magnetic nanoshell. Biomatter2, 313-320.
38. Ganguly, S. and Chakraborty, S. 2009. Effective viscosity of nanoscale colloidal suspensions. Journal of Applied Physics106, 124309.
39. Ghosal, S. 2004. Fluid mechanics of electroosmotic flow and its effect on band broadening in capillary electrophoresis. Electrophoresis25, 214-228.
40. Groves, M.J. 1970. Accelerated stability testing of emulsions. Pesticide Science1, 274-278.
41. Gupta, P.N., Mishra, V., Rawat, A., Dubey, P., Mahor, S., Jain, S., Chatterji, D.P., and Vyas, S.P. 2005. Non-invasive vaccine in transfersomes, niosomes and liposomes: A comparative study. International Journal of Pharmacy293, 73-82.
42. Guzelsu, N., Wienstien, C., and Kotha, S.P. 2010. A new streaming potential chamber for zeta potential measurements of particles. Review of Scientific Instruments81, 015106.
43. Ha, S. 2003. A study on the reproducibility of particle size analysis using laser diffraction. Environmental Engineering Research8, 212-221.
44. Hackley, V.A. and Clogston, J.D. 2011. Measuring the hydrodynamic size of nanoparticles in aqueous media using batch-mode dynamic light scattering. Methods in Molecular Biology69, 35-52.
45. Hafner, B. 2007. Scanning Electron Microscopy Primer. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, pp. 1-29.
46. Hamishehkar, H., Emami, J., Najafabadi, A.R., Gilani, K., Minaiyan, M., Mahdavi, H., and Nokhodchi, A. 2010. Effect of carrier morphology and surface characteristics on the development of respirable PLGA microcapsules for sustained-release pulmonary delivery of insulin. International Journal of Pharmaceutics389, 74-85.
47. Holtzhauer, M. 2006. Chapter 5. In BasicMethods for the Biochemical Lab. New York: Springer Science+Business Media.
48. Hungerford, G., Baptista, A.L.F., Coutinho, P.J.G., Castanheira, E.M.S., and Real Oliveira, M.E.C.D. 2006. Interaction of DODAB with neutral phospholipids and cholesterol studied using fluorescence anisotropy. Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology A: Chemistry181, 99-105.
49. Hunter, R.J. 1998. Recent developments in the electroacoustic characterization of colloidal suspensions and emulsions. Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects141, 37-65.
50. Hwang, T., Park, T.J., Koh, W.G., Cheong, I.W., and Choi, S.W. 2011. Fabrication of nano-scale liposomes containing doxorubicin using Shirasu porous glass membrane. Colloids and Surface A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects392, 250-255.
51. Inoue, T., Muraoka, Y., Fukushima, K., and Shimozawa, R. 1988. Interaction of surfactants with vesicle membrane of dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine: Fluorescence depolarization study. Chemistry Physics of Lipids46, 107-115.
52. Janaka, G.H.A., Kumara, J., Hayano, K., and Ogiwara, K. 2012. Image analysis techniques on evaluation of particle size distribution of gravel. International of Journal of GEOMATE3, 290-297.
53. Jennings B.R., and Parslow, K. 1988. Particle size measurement: The equivalent spherical diameter. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences419, 137-149.
54. Kathy, H.M.G., and Persis, J.S. 2008. The influence of ingredients on the microstructure of chocolate. AgroFood Industry Hi-tech19, 30-32.
55. Kepczyński, M., Nawalany, K., Kumorek, M., Kobierska, A., Jachimska, B., and Nowakowska, M. 2008. Which physical and structural factors of liposome carriers control their drug-loading efficiency? Chemistry Physics of Lipids155, 7-15.
56. Kheradmandnia, S., Vasheghani-Farahani, E., Nosrati, M., and Atyabi, F. 2010. Preparation and characterization of ketoprofen-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles made from beeswax and carnauba wax. Nanomedicine: Nanotechnology, Biology, and Medicine6, 753-759.
57. King, R.P. 1984. Measurement of particle size distribution by image analyser. Powder Technology39, 279-289.
58. Kippax, P. 2005. Appraisal of the laser diffraction particle-sizing technique. Pharmaceutical Technology29, 88-96.
59. Kirby, B.J., and Hasselbrink, E.F. 2004. Zeta potential of microfluidic substrates: 1. Theory, experimental techniques, and effects on separations. Electrophoresis25, 187-202.
60. Kong,M., and Park, H.J. 2011. Stability investigation of hyaluronic acid based nanoemulsion and its potential as transdermal carrier. Carbohydrate Polymers83, 1303-1310.
61. Kontermann, R. and Dübel, S. 2010. Antibody engineering. Voedisch, B. and Thie, H. (eds.) Size Exclusion Chromatography. New York: Springer Science+Business Media, pp. 607-612.
62. Koolman, J., and Roehm, K.H. 2005. Color Atlas of Biochemistry, 2nd edn. Stuttgart: Georg Thieme Verlag.
63. Kutchai, H.,Chandler, L.H., andZavoico,G.B. 1983. Effects of cholesterol on acyl chain dynamics in multilamellar vesicles of various phosphatidylcholines. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta736, 137-149.
64. Lakowicz, J.R. 2006. Principle of Fluorescence, 3rd edn. New York: Springer Science+Business Media.
65. Liu, N. and Park, H.J. 2009. Chitosan-coated nanoliposome as vitamin E carrier. Journal of Microencapsulation26, 235-242.
66. Liu, P., Tam, M., and Kazmaier, P.M. 2006. Method of preparing encapsulated bichromal balls. Patent Application Publication, US 2006/0119926 A1.
67. Lu, P.J. 2005. Confocal scanning optical microscopy and nanotechnology. Yao, N. and Wang, Z.L. (eds.) Handbook of Microscopy for Nanotechnology. New York: Springer Science+Business Media, pp. 3-24.
68. Malvern. Dynamic Light Scattering: An Introduction in 30 minutes. Malvern Instruments, Malvern, Worcestershire, UK. Downloadable application note from www.malvern.com.
69. Manconi, A., Khanrin, P., Lohcharoenkal,W.,Werner, R.G., Götz, F.,Manosroi,W., and Manosroi, J. 2010. Transdermal absorption enhancement through rat skin of gallidermin loaded in niosomes. International Journal of Pharmacy412, 37-46.
70. Manson, T.G., Wilking, J.N., Meleson, K., Chang, C.B., and Graves, S.M. 2006. Nanoemulsion: Formation, structure, and physical properties. Journal of Physics: Condensed Matter18, R635-R666.
71. Martins, I.M., Rodrigues, S.N., Barreiro, M.F., and Rodrigues, A.E. 2011. Polylactide-based thyme oil microcapsules production: Evaluation of surfactants. Industrial&EngineeringChemistry Research50, 898-904.
72. Maruyama, T., Fukui, Y., Tsuchiya, E., and Fujii, A. 2012. One-step preparation of giant lipid vesicles with high encapsulation efficiency using an electrospray technique: Electronic Supplementary Material. RES Advances2, 11672-11674.
73. McClements, D.J. 2000. Comments on viscosity enhancement and depletion flocculation by polysaccharides. Food Hydrocolloids14, 173-177.
74. McClements, D.J. 2006. Ultrasonic measurement in particle size analysis. Encyclopedia of Analytical Chemistry. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
75. McMullan, D. 1995. Scanning electron microscopy 1928-1965. Scanning, 17, 175-185.
76. Méndez-Vilas, A., and Díaz, J. 2010. Microscopy: Science, technology, application and education. In Chinga-Carrasco,G. (ed.) Microscopy and Computerized Image Analysis ofWood Pulp Fibres: Multiscale Structures, Badajoz: Formatex Research Center, pp. 2182-2189.
77. Merkus, H.G. 2009a. Laser diffraction. In Particle Size Measurement: Fundamental, Practice, Quality. New York: Springer Science+Business Media, pp. 259-285.
78. Merkus,H.G. 2009b. Overview of size characterization techniques. In Particle SizeMeasurement: Fundamental, Practice, Quality. New York: Springer Science+Business Media, pp. 137-194.
79. Merkus,H.G. 2009c. Ultrasound extinction. In Particle Size Measurement: Fundamental, Practice, Quality. New York: Springer Science+Business Media, pp. 287-298.
80. Merkus, H.G. 2009d. Sedimentation techniques. Particle Size Measurement: Fundamental, Practice, Quality. New York: Springer Science+Business Media, pp. 319-348.
81. Merkus, H.G. 2009e. Microscopy and image analysis. Particle Size Measurement: Fundamental, Practice, Quality. New York: Springer Science+Business Media, pp. 195-217.
82. Mishra, D., Garg, M., Dubey, V., Jain, S., and Jain, N.K. 2007. Elastic liposomes mediated transdermal delivery of an anti-hypertensive agent: propanolol hydrochloride. Journal of Pharmacy Science96, 145-155.
83. Mitri, K., Shegokar, R., Gohla, S.,Anselmi, C., andMüller, R.H. 2011. Lipid nanocarriers for dermal delivery of lutein: Preparation, characterization, stability and performance. International Journal of Pharmaceutics414, 267-275.
84. Mokarram, R.R., Mortazavi, S.A., Habibi Najafi, M.B., and Shahidi, F. 2009. The influence of multi stage alginate coating on survivability of potential probiotic bacteria in simulated gastric and intestinal juice. Food Research International42, 1040-1045.
85. Myhra, S., and Rivière, J.C. 2012. Techniques and methods for nanoscale analysis of single particles and ensembles of particles. In Characterization of Nanostructures. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, pp. 135-166.
86. Nagayasu, A., Shimooka, T., Ninouchi, Y., Uchiyama, K., Takeichi, Y., and Kiwada, H. 1994. Effects of fluidity and vesicle size on antitumor activity and myelosuppressive activity of liposomes loaded with daunorubicin. Biological and Pharmaceutical Bulletin17, 935-939.
87. Nguyen, H.M., Hwang, I.C., Park, J.W., and Park, H.J. 2012. Photoprotection for deltamethrin using chitosan-coated beeswax solid lipid nanoparticles. Pest Management Science68, 1062-1068.
88. O'Brien, R.W. 1990. The electroacoustic equations for a colloidal suspension. Journal of Fluid Mechanics212, 81-93.
89. O'Brien, R.W., Midmore, B.R., Lamb, A., and Hunter, R.J. 1990. Electroacoustic studies of moderately concentrated colloidal suspensions. Faraday Discussions of the Chemical Society90, 301-312.
90. Provder, T. 1993. Chromatography of polymers: Characterization by SEC and FFF. Arlaukas, R.A., Burtner, D.R., and Klein, D.H. (eds.) Calibration of PhotosedimentometerUusing Sedimentation Field-Flow Fractionation and Gas Chromatography. ACS Symposium Series, 521. Washington, DC: American Chemical Society Inc., pp. 2-12.
91. Radda,G.K. 1975. In Methods in Membrane Biology(Korrt, E.D., ed.), vol. 4. New York: Plenum Press, pp. 97-188.
92. Rapley, R. and Walker, J.M. 1998. Molecular biomethods handbook. Cutler, P. (ed.) Size-Exclusion Chromatography. New York: Springer Science+Business Media, pp. 451-460.
93. Rosenberg, I.M. 2005. Chapter 5. In Protein Analysis and Purification: Benchtop Techniques, 2nd edn. Boston: Birkhäuser.
94. Sahoo, S.K., Sahoo, S.K., Behera, A., Patil, S.V., and Panda, S.H. 2013. Formulation, in vitro drug release study and anticancer activity of 5-fluorouracil loaded gellan gum microbeads. Acta Poloniae Pharmaceutica - Drug Research70, 123-127.
95. Salopek, B., Krasić, D., and Filipović, S. 1992. Measurement and application of zeta-potential. Rudarsko-geološko-naftni zbornik4, 147-151.
96. Sawyer,D.E., Jacoby, R., Flemings, P., andGermaine, J.T. 2008. Data report: Particle size analysis of sediments in the Ursa Basin, IODP expedition 308 sites U1324 and U1322, northern Gulf of Mexico. Proceedings of the Integrated Ocean Drilling Program308, 1-17.
97. Schätzel, K. 1987. Correlation techniques in dynamic light scattering. Applied Physics B: Photophysics and Laser Chemistry42, 192-213.
98. Schoelkopf, J., Gantenbein, D., Dukhin, A.S., Goetz, P.J., and Gane, P.A.C. 2008. Novel particle size characterization of coating pigments: Comparing acoustic spectroscopy with laser light scattering and sedimentation techniques. Paper presented at Advanced Coating Fundamentals Symposium, Montreal, Canada.
99. Schramm, L.L. 2005. Colloid stability. In Emulsions, Foams, and Suspensions: Fundamentals and Applications.Weinheim: Wiley-VCH, pp. 117-152.
100. Scott, D.J., Harding, S.E., and Rowe, A.J. 2005. Analytical ultracentrifugation. Laidlaw, I. and Steinmetz, M. (eds.) Introduction to Differential Sedimentation. Cambridge: RSC-Publishing Inc., pp. 270-290.
101. Sekiguchi, A., Yamauchi, H., Manosroi, A., Manosroi, J., and Abe, M. 1995. Molecular interactions between phospholipids and glycolipids in a lipid bilayer. Colloids Surface B: Biointerfaces4, 287-296.
102. Shaw, D.J. 1992. Chapter 3. In Introduction to Colloid and Surface Chemistry4th edn. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.
103. Shchukin, D.G., Radtchenko, I.L., and Sukhorukov, G.B. 2003. Micron-scale hollow polyelectrolyte capsules with nanosized magnetic Fe3O4 inside. Material Letters57, 1743-1747.
104. Shekunov, B.Y., Chattopadhyay, P., Tong, H.H.Y., and Chow, A.H.L. 2006. Particle size analysis in pharmaceutics: Principles, methods and applications. Pharmaceutical Research24, 203-227.
105. Shinitzky, M., and Barenholz, Y. 1978. Fluidity parameters of lipid regions determined by fluorescence polarization. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta515, 367-394.
106. Shinitzky, M., Dianoux, A.C., Gitler, C., and Weber, G. 1971. Microviscosity and order in the hydrocarbon region of micelles and membranes determined with fluorescent probes. I. Synthetic micelles. Biochemistry10, 2106-2113.
107. Sze, A., Erickson, D., Ren, L., and Li, D. 2003. Zeta-potential measurement using Smoluchowski equation and the slope of the current-time relationship in electroosmotic flow. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science261, 402-410.
108. Takagi, T. 1993. Electrophoretic light scattering. Electrophoresis14, 1255-1256.
109. Thermo Scientific n.d. Dialysis methods for protein research. Available at: http://www.piercenet.com/browse.cfm?fldID=5753AFD9-5056-8A76-4E135F9E9B4324DA (accessed 2 February 2013).
110. Thulborn, K.R. and Beddard, G.S. 1982. The effects of cholesterol on the time-resolved emission anisotropy of 12-(9-anthroyloxy)stearic acid in dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine bilayers. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta693, 246-252.
111. Thulborn, K.R., Tilley, L.M., Sawyer,W.H., and Treloar, F.E. 1979. The use of n-(9-anthroyloxy) fatty acids to determine fluidity and polarity gradients in phospholipid bilayers. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta558, 166-178.
112. Tilley, L., Thulborn, K.R., and Sawyer, W.H. 1979. An assessment of the fluidity gradient of the lipid bilayer as determined by a set of n-(9-anthroyloxy) fatty acids (n = 2, 6, 9, 12, 16). Journal of Biology Chemistry254, 2592-2594.
113. Tinke, A.P., Carnicer, A., Govoreanu, R., Scheltjens,G., Lauwerysen, L., Mertens,N.,Vanhoutte, K., and Brewster, M.E. 2008. Particle shape and orientation in laser diffraction and static image analysis size distribution analysis of micrometer sized rectangular particles. Power Technology186, 154-167.
114. Tinke, A.P., Govoreanu, R., and Vanhoutte K. 2006. Particle size and shape characterization of nano- and submicron liquid dispersions. American Pharmaceutical Review9, 1-5.
115. Tokudome, Y., Saito, Y., Sato, F., Kikuchi,M., Hinokitani, T., and Goto, K. 2009. Preparation and characterization of ceramide-based liposomes with high fusion activity and high membrane fluidity. Colloids Surface B: Biointerfaces73, 92-96.
116. Toledo, R.T. 2007. Physical separation processes. In Fundamentals of Food Process Engineering, 3rd edn. New York: Springer Science+Business Media, pp. 475-511.
117. Touitou, E.,Dayan,N., Bergelson, L., Godin, B., and Eliaz, M. 2000. Ethosomes - novel vesicular carriers for enhanced delivery: Characterization and skin penetration properties. Journal of Controlled Release65, 403-418.
118. Uchiyama, K., Nagayasu, A., Yamagiwa, Y., Nishida, T., Harashima, H., and Kiwada, H. 1995. Effects of the size and fluidity of liposomes on their accumulation in tumors: A presumption of their interaction with tumors. International Journal of Pharmaceutics121, 195-203.
119. van den Bergh, B.A.I., Wertz, P.W., Junginger, H.E., and Bouwstra, J.A. 2001. Elasticity of vesicles assessed by electron spin resonance, electron microscopy and extrusion measurements. International Journal of Pharmacy217, 13-24.
120. Wang, Y., Bansal, V., Zelikin, N., and Caruso, F. 2008. Templated synthesis of single-component polymer capsules and their application in drug delivery. Nano Letters8, 1741-1745.
121. Watanabe, K., Kaneko, M., and Maitani, Y. 2012. Functional coating of liposomes using a folate-polymer conjugate to target folate receptor. International Journal of Nanomedicine7, 3679-3688.
122. Weiss, J. 1999. Effect of Mass Transport Processes on Physicochemical Properties of Surfactant-Stabilized Emulsions. Amherst, MA: Department of Food Science, University of Massachusetts.
123. Weiss, J. 2002. Emulsion stability determination. InWrolstad, R.E. (editor-in-chief) Current Protocols in Food Analytical Chemistry. New York: John Wiley & Sons Inc., pp. D3.4.1-D3.4.17.
124. Werff, J.C.V.D., and Kruif, C.G.D. 1989. Hardsphere colloidal dispersions: The scaling of rheological properties with particle size, volume fraction, and shear rate. Journal of Rheology33, 421-454.
125. Williams, D.B. and Carter, C.B. 2009. The transmission electron microscope. In Transmission Electron Microscopy: A Textbook for Material Science. New York: Springer Science+Business Media, pp. 3-22.
126. Trathnigg, B. 2004. Handbook of Size Exclusion Chromatography and Related Techniques, 2nd edn. (Chromatographic Science Series, Vol. 91.) By Chi-San Wu. John Wiley & Sons Inc. pp. 1-23.
127. Xu, R. 2002. Electrophoretic light scattering. In Particle Characterization: Light Scattering Methods. London: Kluwer Academic Publishers, pp. 289-343.
128. Yu, J., Javier, D., Yaseen,M.A., Nitin, N., Richards-Kortum, R., Anvari, B., andWong,M.S. 2010. Self-assembly synthesis, tumor cell targeting, and photothermal capabilities of antibody-coated indocyanine green nanocapsules. Journal of the American Chemical Society132, 1929-1938.
129. Zhang, J., Chen, X.G., Li, Y.Y., and Liu, C.S. 2007. Self-assembled nanoparticles based on hydrophobically modified chitosan as carriers for doxorubicin. Nanomedicine: Nanotechnology, Biology, and Medicine3, 258-265.
130. Zhou, W., Apkarian, R.P., Wang, Z.L., and Joy, D. 2006. Fundamentals of scanning electron microscopy. InZhou,WandWang,Z.L. (eds.) Scanning Microscopy for Nanotechnology: Techniques and Applications. New York: Springer Science+Business Media, pp. 1-40.