Phosphorus transport in agricultural subsurface drainage: A review

Journal of Environmental Quality

Volumn 44, Issue 2, 2015, Pages 467-485

  King, Kevin W ^a   Williams, Mark R ^a   Macrae, Merrin L ^b   Fausey, Norman R ^a   Frankenberger, Jane ^c   Smith, Douglas R ^d   Kleinman, Peter J A ^d   Brown, Larry C ^e  

^a SOIL DRAINAGE RESEARCH UNIT   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF WATERLOO   (Canada)

^c PURDUE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^d AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH SERVICE   (United States)

^e OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AGRICULTURE; DRAINAGE; EUTROPHICATION; GROUNDWATER FLOW; INLET FLOW; PHOSPHORUS; RIVER POLLUTION; SOILS; WATER MANAGEMENT; WATER QUALITY;

AGRICULTURAL SETTING; AGRICULTURAL SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE; DRAINAGE WATER MANAGEMENT; PHOSPHORUS TRANSPORT; SEASONAL DIFFERENCES; SOIL CHARACTERISTICS; SUBSURFACE DRAINAGES; WATER QUALITY ISSUES;

SOIL TESTING;

PHOSPHORUS;

ADSORPTION KINETICS; AGRICULTURAL LAND; ARTICLE; CLIMATE; CONSERVATION TILLAGE; CROP PRODUCTION; CROPPING SYSTEM; DESULFURIZATION; EUTROPHICATION; HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY; HYDROLOGY; NORTH AMERICA; OXIDATION REDUCTION POTENTIAL; OXIDATION REDUCTION REACTION; SEASONAL VARIATION; SOIL MANAGEMENT; SURFACE SOIL; TENSILE STRENGTH; WATER CYCLE; WATER MANAGEMENT; WATER SUPPLY;

EID: 84925446818     PISSN: 00472425     EISSN: 15372537     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2134/jeq2014.04.0163     Document Type: Article

References (240)

1. Addiscott, T.M., D. Brockie, J.A. Catt, D.G. Christian, G.L. Harris, K.R. Howse, N.A. Mirza, and T.J. Pepper. 2000. Phosphate losses through field drains in a heavy cultivated soil. J. Environ. Qual. 29:522-532. doi:10.2134/jeq2000.00472425002900020021x
2. Agrawal, S.G., K.W. King, J.F. Moore, P. Levison, and J. McDonald. 2011. Use of industrial byproducts to filter phosphorus and pesticides in golf green drainage water. J. Environ. Qual. 40:1273-1280. doi:10.2134/jeq2010.0390
3. Algoazany, A.S., P.K. Kalita, G.F. Czapar, and J.K. Mitchell. 2007. Phosphorus transport subsurface drainage and surface runoff from a flat watershed in east central Illinois, USA. J. Environ. Qual. 36:681-693. doi:10.2134/jeq2006.0161
4. Allaire, S.E., S. Roulier, and A.J. Cessna. 2009. Quantifying preferential flow in soils: A review of different techniques. J. Hydrol. 378:179-204. doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2009.08.013
5. Allen, B.L., A.P. Mallarino, J.F. Lore, J.L. Baker, and M.U. Haq. 2012. Phosphorus lateral movement through subsoil to subsurface tile drains. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 76:710-717. doi:10.2136/sssaj2011.0150
6. Allred, B.J. 2010. Laboratory batch test evaluation of five filter materials for removal of nutrients and pesticides from drainage waters. Trans. ASABE 53:39-54. doi:10.13031/2013.29501
7. Andreini, M.S., and T.S. Steenhuis. 1990. Preferential paths of flow under conventional and conservation tillage. Geoderma 46:85-102. doi:10.1016/0016-7061(90)90009-X
8. Ann, Y., K.R. Reddy, and J.J. Delfino. 2000. Influence of redox potential on phosphorus solubility in chemically amended wetland organic soils. Ecol. Eng. 14:169-180. doi:10.1016/S0925-8574(99)00027-0
9. Arnold, J.G., R. Srinivasan, R.R. Muttiah, and J.R. Williams. 1998. Large area hydrologic modeling and assessment part I: Model development. J. Am. Water Resour. Assoc. 34:73-89. doi:10.1111/j.1752-1688.1998. tb05961.x
10. Baker, J.L., K.L. Campbell, H.P. Johnson, and J.J. Hanway. 1975. Nitrate, phosphorus, and sulfate in subsurface drainage water. J. Environ. Qual. 4:406-412. doi:10.2134/jeq1975.00472425000400030027x
11. Ball-Coelho, B.R., R.C. Roy, E. Topp, and D.R. Lapen. 2007. Tile water quality following liquid swine manure application into standing corn. J. Environ. Qual. 36:580-587. doi:10.2134/jeq2006.0306
12. Ball Coelho, B., A.J. Bruin, S. Staton, and D. Hayman. 2010. Sediment and nutrient contributions from subsurface drains and point sources to an agricultural watershed. Air Soil Water Res. 3:1-21. doi:10.4137/ASWR.S4471
13. Beauchemin, S., R.R. Simard, and D. Cluis. 1998. Forms and concentration of phosphorus in drainage water of twenty-seven tile-drained soils. J. Environ. Qual. 27:721-728. doi:10.2134/jeq1998.00472425002700030033x
14. Bende-Michl, U., K. Verburg, and H.P. Cresswell. 2013. High-frequency nutrient monitoring to infer seasonal patterns in catchment source availability, mobilization and delivery. Environ. Monit. Assess. 185:9191-9219. doi:10.1007/s10661-013-3246-8
15. Bengtson, R.L., C.E. Carter, J.L. Fouss, L.M. Southwick, and G.H. Willis. 1995. Agricultural drainage and water quality in the Mississippi delta. J. Irrig. Drain. Eng. 121:292-295. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9437(1995)121:4(292)
16. Bird, S.C., and A. Drizo. 2010. EAF steel slag filters for phosphorus removal from milk parlor effluent: The effects of solids loading, alternate feeding regimes and in-series design. Water 2:484-499. doi:10.3390/w2030484
17. Blann, K.L., J.L. Anderson, G.R. Sands, and B. Vondracek. 2009. Effects of agricultural drainage on aquatic ecosystems: A review. Crit. Rev. Environ. Sci. Technol. 39:909-1001. doi:10.1080/10643380801977966
18. Boesch, D.F., R.B. Brinsfield, and R.E. Magnien. 2001. Chesapeake Bay eutrophication. J. Environ. Qual. 30:303-320. doi:10.2134/jeq2001.302303x
19. Bolton, E.F., J.W. Aylesworth, and F.R. Hore. 1970. Nutrient losses through tile drains under three cropping systems and two fertility levels on a Brookston clay soil. Can. J. Soil Sci. 50:275-279. doi:10.4141/cjss70-038
20. Bottcher, A.B., E.J. Monke, and L.F. Huggins. 1981. Nutrient and sediment loadings from a subsurface drainage system. Trans. ASABE 24:1221-1226. doi:10.13031/2013.34423
21. Brady, N., and R. Weil. 2002. The nature and properties of soils. 13th ed. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ.
22. Braskerud, B.C. 2001. The influence of vegetation on sedimentation and resuspension of soil particles in small constructed wetlands. J. Environ. Qual. 30:1447-1457. doi:10.2134/jeq2001.3041447x
23. Braskerud, B.C., T. Hartnik, and O. Lovstad. 2005. The effect of the redoxpotential on the retention of phosphorus in a small constructed wetland. Water Sci. Technol. 51:127-134.
24. Brauer, N., A.T. O'Geen, and R.A. Dahlgren. 2009. Temporal variability in water quality of agricultural tailwaters: Implications for water quality monitoring. Agric. Water Manage. 96:1001-1009. doi:10.1016/j.agwat.2009.01.011
25. Brix, H., C.A. Arias, and M. Del Bubba. 2001. Media selection for sustainable phosphorus removal in subsurface flow constructed wetlands. Water Sci. Technol. 44:47-54.
26. Bryant, R.B., A.R. Buda, P.J.A. Kleinman, C.D. Church, L.S. Saporito, G.J. Folmar, S. Bose, and A.L. Allen. 2012. Using flue gas desulfurization gypsum to remove dissolved phosphorus from agricultural drainage waters. J. Environ. Qual. 41:664-671. doi:10.2134/jeq2011.0294
27. Brye, K.R., T.W. Andraski, W.M. Jarrell, L.G. Bundy, and J.M. Norman. 2002. Phosphorus leaching under a restored tallgrass prairie and corn agroecosystems. J. Environ. Qual. 31:769-781. doi:10.2134/jeq2002.0769
28. Carefoot, J.P., and J.K. Whalen. 2003. Phosphorus concentrations in subsurface water as influenced by cropping systems and fertilizer sources. Can. J. Soil Sci. 83:203-212. doi:10.4141/S02-027
29. Catt, J.A., K.R. Howse, R. Farina, D. Brockie, A. Todd, B.J. Chambers, R. Hodgkinson, G.L. Harris, and J.N. Quinton. 1998. Phosphorus losses from arable land in England. Soil Use Manage. 14:168-174. doi:10.1111/j.1475-2743.1998.tb00636.x
30. Chambers, P.A., M. Guy, S.S. Dixit, G.A. Benoy, R.B. Brua, J.M. Culp, D. McGoldrick, B.L. Upsdell, and C. Vis. 2009. Nitrogen and phosphorus standards to protect the ecological condition of Canadian streams, rivers and coastal waters. National Agri-Environmental Standards Initiative synthesis report No. 11. Environment Canada, Gatineau, Quebec, Canada.
31. Chapman, A.S., I.D.L. Foster, J.A. Lees, R.A. Hodgkinson, and R.H. Jackson. 2001. Particulate phosphorus transport by subsurface drainage from agricultural land in the UK: Environmental significance at the catchment and national scale. Sci. Total Environ. 266:95-102. doi:10.1016/S0048-9697(00)00734-8
32. Chen, C.C., G.C. Gong, and F.K. Shiah. 2007. Hypoxia in the East China Sea:One of the largest coastal low-oxygen areas in the world. Mar. Environ. Res. 64:399-408. doi:10.1016/j.marenvres.2007.01.007
33. Conley, D.J., C. Humborg, L. Rahm, O.P. Savchuk, and F. Wulff. 2002. Hypoxia in the Baltic Sea and basin-scale changes in phosphorus biogeochemistry. Environ. Sci. Technol. 36:5315-5320. doi:10.1021/es025763w
34. Cooke, R.A., P.K. Kalita, and J.K. Mitchell. 2004. Analysis of water quality from retrofitted drainage water management systems. The 6th Int. Conf. on Hydroscience and Engineering. 30 May-3 June. Brisbane, Australia.
35. Cooper, J.R., and J.W. Gilliam. 1987. Phosphorus redistribution from cultivated fields into riparian areas. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 51:1600-1604. doi:10.2136/sssaj1987.03615995005100060035x
36. Cooper, R.L., N.R. Fausey, and J.G. Streetes. 1991. Yield potential of soybean grown under a subirrigation/drainage water management system. Agron. J. 83:884-887. doi:10.2134/agronj1991.00021962008300050021x
37. Correll, D.L. 1998. The role of phosphorus in the eutrophication of receiving waters: A review. J. Environ. Qual. 27:261-266. doi:10.2134/jeq1998.00472425002700020004x
38. Culley, J.L.B., E.F. Bolton, and V. Bernyk. 1983. Suspended solids and phosphorus loads from a clay soil: I. plot studies. J. Environ. Qual. 12:493-498. doi:10.2134/jeq1983.00472425001200040011x
39. Culley, J.L.B., and E.F. Bolton. 1983. Suspended solids and phosphorus loads from a clay soil: II. Watershed study. J. Environ. Qual. 12:498-503. doi:10.2134/jeq1983.00472425001200040012x
40. Dahl, T.E. 1990. Wetlands losses in the United States, 1780s to 1980s. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, DC.
41. Daly, K., D. Jeffrey, and H. Tunney. 2001. The effect of soil type on phosphorus sorption capacity and desorption dynamics in Irish grassland soils. Soil Use Manage. 17:12-20. doi:10.1111/j.1475-2743.2001.tb00003.x
42. Dean, D.M., and M.E. Foran. 1992. The effect of farm liquid waste application on tile drainage. J. Soil Water Conserv. 47:368-369.
43. Delgado, A., M.D. Hurtado, and L. Andreu. 2006. Phosphorus loss in tile drains from a reclaimed marsh soil amended with manure and phosphogypsum. Nutr. Cycling Agroecosyst. 74:191-202. doi:10.1007/s10705-005-6240-x
44. de Rooij, G.H. 2000. Modeling fingered flow of water in soils owing to wetting front instability: A review. J. Hydrol. 231-232:277-294. doi:10.1016/S0022-1694(00)00201-8
45. Diaz, R.J. 2001. Overview of hypoxia around the world. J. Environ. Qual. 30:275-281. doi:10.2134/jeq2001.302275x
46. Dils, R.M., and A.L. Heathwaite. 1999. The controversial role of tile drainage in phosphorus export from agricultural land. Water Sci. Technol. 39:55-61. doi:10.1016/S0273-1223(99)00318-2
47. Djodjic, F., L. Bergström, and B. Ulén. 2002. Phosphorus losses from a structured clay soil in relation to tillage practices. Soil Use Manage. 18:79-83. doi:10.1111/j.1475-2743.2002.tb00223.x
48. Djodjic, F., L. Bergström, B. Ulén, and A. Shirmohammadi. 1999. Mode of transport of surface-applied phosphours-33 through clay and sandy soil. J. Environ. Qual. 28:1273-1282. doi:10.2134/jeq1999.00472425002800040031x
49. Dodds, W.K. 2006. Nutrients in the "dead zone": The link between nutrient ratios and dissolved oxygen in the northern Gulf of Mexico. Front. Ecol. Environ 4:211-217. doi:10.1890/1540-9295(2006)004[0211:NATDZT]2.0.CO;2
50. Dolezal, F., Z. Kulhavy, M. Soukup, and R. Kodesova. 2001. Hydrology of tile drainage runoff. Phys. Chem. Earth B 26:623-627.
51. Dominguez, J., P.J. Bohlen, and R.W. Parmelee. 2004. Earthworms increase nitrogen leaching to greater soil depths in row crop agroecosytems. Ecosystems 7:672-685. doi:10.1007/s10021-004-0150-7
52. Drury, C.F., and C.S. Tan. 1995. Long-term (35 years) effects of fertilization, rotation and weather on corn yields. Can. J. Plant Sci. 75:355-362. doi:10.4141/cjps95-060
53. Drury, C.F., C.S. Tan, T.W. Welacky, T.O. Oloya, and A.S. Hamill. 1999. Red clover and tillage influence on soil temperature, water content and corn emergence. Agron. J. 91:101-108. doi:10.2134/agronj1999.00021962009100010016x
54. Dunne, E.J., K.A. McKee, M.W. Clark, S. Grunwald, and K.R. Reddy. 2007. Phosphorus in agricultural ditch soil and potential implications for water quality. J. Soil Water Conserv. 62:244-252.
55. Duxbury, J.M., and J.H. Peverly. 1978. Nitrogen and phosphorus losses from organic soils. J. Environ. Qual. 7:566-570. doi:10.2134/jeq1978.00472425000700040020x
56. Eastman, M., A. Gollamudi, N. Stampfli, C.A. Madramootoo, and A. Sarangi. 2010. Comparative evaluation of phosphorus losses from subsurface and naturally drained agricultural fields in the Pike River watershed of Quebec, Canada. Agric. Water Manage. 97:596-604. doi:10.1016/j. agwat.2009.11.010
57. Eghball, B., G.D. Binford, and D.D. Baltensperger. 1996. Phosphorus movement and adsorption in a soil receiving long-term manure and fertilizer application. J. Environ. Qual. 25:1339-1343. doi:10.2134/jeq1996.00472425002500060024x
58. Eidman, V. 1997. Minnesota farmland drainage: Profitability and concerns. No. 688. Agricultural Economist. http://ageconsearch.umn.edu/bitstream/13165/1/mae688a.pdf (accessed 2 Sept. 2014).
59. Elliott, H.A., G.A. O'Connor, and S. Brinton. 2002. Phosphorus leaching from biosolids-amended sandy soils. J. Environ. Qual. 31:681-689. doi:10.2134/jeq2002.0681
60. Enright, P., and C.A. Madramootoo. 2003. Phosphorus losses in surface runoff and subsurface drainage waters on two agricultural fields in Quebec. Canadian Society for Engineering in Agriculture, Food, and Biological Systems. CSAE/SCGR Meeting. 6-9 July 2003. Montreal, QC, Canada.
61. Environment Canada. 2004. Canadian guidance framework for the management of phosphorus in freshwater systems. Ecosystem Health: Science-based solutions report no. 1-8. Cat. No. En1-34/8-2004E. National Guidelines and Standards Office, Water Policy and Coordination Directorate, Environment Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.
62. Evans, R.O., R.W. Skaggs, and J.W. Gilliam. 1990. Controlled drainage and subirrigation effects on drainage water quality. Int. Congr. on Irrig. and Drain., Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
63. Evans, R.O., R.W. Skaggs, and J.W. Gilliam. 1991. Controlled drainage management guidelines for improving drainage water quality. Bull. AG-443. N.C. Cooperative Extension Service, Raleigh, NC.
64. Evans, R.O., R.W. Skaggs, and J.W. Gilliam. 1995. Controlled versus conventional drainage effects on water quality. J. Irrig. Drain. Eng. 121:271-276.
65. Fausey, N.R. 2005. Drainage management for humid regions. Int. Agric. Eng. J. 14:209-214.
66. Fausey, N.R. 2003. Drainage: Inadequacy and crop response. In: B.A. Stewart and T. Howell, editors, Encyclopedia of water science. Taylor and Francis, Oxford, UK. p. 132-134.
67. Feser, S.E., J.S. Strock, G.R. Sands, and A.S. Birr. 2010. Controlled drainage to improve edge-of-field water quality in southwest Minnesota, USA. XVIIth World Congress of the Int. Commission of Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering. 13-17 June 2010. Quebec City, Quebec, Canada.
68. Feyereisen, G.W., P.J.A. Kleinman, G.J. Folmar, L.S. Saporito, T.R. Way, C.D. Church, and A.L. Allen. 2010. Effect of direct incorporation of poultry litter on phosphorus leaching from coastal plain soils. J. Soil Water Conserv. 65:243-251. doi:10.2489/jswc.65.4.243
69. Fox, R.L., and E.J. Kamprath. 1970. Phosphate sorption isotherms for evaluating the phosphate requirements of soils. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 34:902-907. doi:10.2136/sssaj1970.03615995003400060025x
70. Frey, S.K., E. Topp, B.R. Ball, M. Edwards, N. Gottschall, M. Sunohara, E. Zoski, and D.R. Lapen. 2013. Tile drainage management influences on surfacewater and groundwater quality following liquid manure application. J. Environ. Qual. 42:881-892. doi:10.2134/jeq2012.0261
71. Frossard, E., J.W.B. Stewart, and R.J. St Arnaud. 1989. Distribution and mobility of phosphorus in grassland and forest soils of Saskatchewan. Can. J. Soil Sci. 69:401-416. doi:10.4141/cjss89-040
72. Gachter, R., J.M. Ngatiah, and C. Stamm. 1998. Transport of phosphate from soil to surface waters by preferential flow. Environ. Sci. Technol. 32:1865-1869. doi:10.1021/es9707825
73. Gaynor, J.D., and W.I. Findlay. 1995. Soil and phosphorus loss from conservation and conventional tillage in corn production. J. Environ. Qual. 24:734-741. doi:10.2134/jeq1995.00472425002400040026x
74. Gelbrecht, J., H. Lengsfeld, R. Pothig, and D. Opitz. 2005. Temporal and spatial variation of phosphorus input, retention and loss in a small catchment of NE Germany. J. Hydrol. 304:151-165. doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2004.07.028
75. Gentry, L.E., M.B. David, T.V. Royer, C.A. Mitchell, and K.M. Starks. 2007. Phosphorus transport pathways to streams in tile-drained agricultural watersheds. J. Environ. Qual. 36:408-415. doi:10.2134/jeq2006.0098
76. Geohring, L.D., O.V. McHugh, M.T. Walter, T.S. Steenhuis, M.S. Akhtar, and M.F. Walter. 2001. Phosphorus transport into subsurface drains by macropores after manure applications: Implications for best manure management practices. Soil Sci. 166:896-909. doi:10.1097/00010694-200112000-00004
77. Gieseke, T.M. 2000. A comparison of sediment and phosphorus losses from rock inlets and open tile inlets in the lower Minnesota River basin. M.S. thesis. Minnesota State University, Mankato, MN.
78. Gilliam, J.W., and R.W. Skaggs. 1986. Controlled agricultural drainage to maintain water quality. J. Irrig. Drain. Eng. 112:254-263. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9437(1986)112:3(254)
79. Gilliam, J.W., R.W. Skaggs, and S.B. Weed. 1979. Drainage control to diminish nitrate losses from agricultural fields. J. Environ. Qual. 8:137-142. doi:10.2134/jeq1979.00472425000800010030x
80. Ginting, D., J.F. Moncrief, and S.C. Gupta. 2000. Runoff, solids, and contaminant losses into surface tile inlets draining lacustrine depressions. J. Environ. Qual. 29:551-560. doi:10.2134/jeq2000.00472425002900020024x
81. Goins, T. 1956. Tile flow characteristics. Agric. Eng. 37:30-35.
82. Hawley, N., T.H. Johengen, Y.R. Rao, S.A. Ruberg, D. Beletsky, S.A. Ludsin, B.J. Eadie, D.J. Schwab, T.E. Croley, and S.B. Brandt. 2006. Lake Erie hypoxia prompts Canada-U.S. study. EOS Trans. Am. Geophys. Union 87:313-319.
83. Haygarth, P.M., A.L. Heathwaite, S.C. Jarvis, and T.R. Harrod. 2000. Hydrological factors for phosphorus transfer from agricultural soils. Adv. Agron. 69:153-178. doi:10.1016/S0065-2113(08)60949-9
84. Heathwaite, A.L., and R.M. Dils. 2000. Characterizing phosphorus loss in surface and subsurface hydrological pathways. Sci. Total Environ. 251-252:523-538. doi:10.1016/S0048-9697(00)00393-4
85. Heckrath, G., P.C. Brooks, P.R. Poulton, and K.W.T. Goulding. 1995. Phosphorus leaching from soils containing different phosphorus concentrations in the Broadbalk experiment. J. Environ. Qual. 24:904-910. doi:10.2134/jeq1995.00472425002400050018x
86. Hergert, G.W., S.D. Klausner, D.R. Bouldin, and P.J. Zwerman. 1981. Effects of dairy manure on phosphorus concentrations and losses in tile effluent. J. Environ. Qual. 10:345-349. doi:10.2134/jeq1981.00472425001000030018x
87. Hesketh, N., and P.C. Brooks. 2000. Development of an indicator for risk of phosphorus leaching. J. Environ. Qual. 29:105-110. doi:10.2134/jeq2000.00472425002900010013x
88. Hirt, U., A. Wetzig, M.D. Amatya, and M. Matranga. 2011. Impact of seasonality on artificial drainage discharge under temperate climate conditions. Int. Rev. Hydrobiol. 96:561-577. doi:10.1002/iroh.201111274
89. Holford, I.C.R., and W.H. Patrick. 1979. Effects of reduction and pH changes on phosphate sorption and mobility in an acid soil. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 43:292-297. doi:10.2136/sssaj1979.03615995004300020010x
90. Hooda, P.S., M. Moynagh, I.F. Svoboda, A.C. Edwards, H.A. Anderson, and G. Sym. 1999. Phosphorus loss in drainflow from intensively managed grassland soils. J. Environ. Qual. 28:1235-1242. doi:10.2134/jeq1999.00472425002800040026x
91. Hoover, J.R., and G.O. Schwab. 1969. Effect of tile depth, spacing, and cropping practices on drain discharge. Trans. ASABE 12:150-152.
92. Hornbuckle, J.W., E.W. Christen, and R.D. Faulkner. 2007. Evaluating a multilevel subsurface drainage system for improved water quality. Agric. Water Manage. 89:208-216. doi:10.1016/j.agwat.2007.01.004
93. Hubbard, D.E. 2005. A review of the effects of pattern tiling on wetlands and receiving waters. Dep. of Wildlife and Fisheries Sciences, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD.
94. IPNI. 2010. Soil test levels in North America 2010. International Plant Nutrition Institute, Peachtree Corners, GA.
95. Irwin, R. 1986. Drainage guide for Ontario. Publication 29. Ministry of Agriculture and Food, Toronto, Canada.
96. Irwin, R. 1989. Handbook of drainage principles. Publication 73. Ministry of Agriculture and Food, Toronto, Canada.
97. Jamieson, A., C.A. Madramootoo, and P. Engright. 2003. Phosphorus losses in surface and subsurface runoff from a snowmelt event on an agricultural field in Quebec. Can. Biosyst. Eng. 45:1-7.
98. Jansson, M.R.A., H. Berggren, and L. Leonardson. 1994. Wetlands and lakes as nitrogen traps. Ambio 23:320-325.
99. Jordan, T.E., D.F. Whigham, K. Hofmockel, and N. Gerber. 1999. Restored wetlands in crop fields control nutrient runoff. In: J. Vymazal, editor, Nutrient cycling and retention in natural and constructed wetlands. Backhuys Publishers, Lieden, The Netherlands. p. 9-60.
100. Kimmell, R.J., G.M. Pierzynski, K.A. Janssen, and P.L. Barnes. 2001. Effect of tillage and phosphorus placement on phosphorus runoff losses in a grain sorghum-soybean rotation. J. Environ. Qual. 30:1324-1330. doi:10.2134/jeq2001.3041324x
101. King, K.W., J. McDonald, J.F. Moore, S.G. Agrawal, E.N. Fischer, and J.C. Balogh. 2010. Nutrient and pesticide removal from laboratory-simulated tile drainage discharge. Trans. ASABE 53:769-777. doi:10.13031/2013.30082
102. King, K.W., N.R. Fausey, and M.R. Williams. 2014a. Effect of subsurface drainage on streamflow in an agricultural headwater watershed. J. Hydrol. 519:438-445.
103. King, K.W., M.R. Williams, and N.R. Fausey. 2014b. Contributions of systematic tile drainage to watershed phosphorus transport. J. Environ. Qual. (in press). doi:10.2134/jeq2014.04.0149
104. Kinley, R.D., R.J. Gordon, G.W. Stratton, G.T. Patterson, and J. Hoyle. 2007. Phosphorus losses through agricultural tile drainage in Nova Scotia, Canada. J. Environ. Qual. 36:469-477. doi:10.2134/jeq2006.0138
105. Kladivko, E.J., J. Grochulska, R.F. Turco, G.E. van Scoyoc, and A.D.J. Eigel. 1999. Pesticide and nitrate transport into subsurface tile drains of different spacings. J. Environ. Qual. 28:997-1004. doi:10.2134/jeq1999.00472425002800030033x
106. Kleinman, P.J.A., A.N. Sharpley, A.R. Buda, R.W. McDowell, and A.L. Allen. 2011. Soil controls of phosphorus in runoff: Management barriers and opportunities. Can. J. Soil Sci. 91:329-338. doi:10.4141/cjss09106
107. Kleinman, P.J.A., A.N. Sharpley, L.S. Saporito, A.R. Buda, and R.B. Bryant. 2009. Application of manure to no-till soils: Phosphorus losses by subsurface and surface pathways. Nutr. Cycling Agroecosyst. 84:215-227. doi:10.1007/s10705-008-9238-3
108. Kleinman, P.J.A., A.M. Wolf, A.N. Sharpley, D.B. Beegle, and L.S. Saporito. 2005. Survey of water-extractable phosphorus in livestock manures. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 69:701-708. doi:10.2136/sssaj2004.0099
109. Kleinman, P.J.A., and A.N. Sharpley. 2002. Estimating soil phosphorus sorption saturation from Mehlich-3 data. Commun. Soil Sci. Plant Anal. 33:1825-1839. doi:10.1081/CSS-120004825
110. Kleinman, P.J.A., and A.N. Sharpley. 2003. Effect of broadcast manure on runoff phosphorus concentrations over successive rainfall events. J. Environ. Qual. 32:1072-1081. doi:10.2134/jeq2003.1072
111. Klatt, J.G., A.P. Mallarino, and B.L. Allen. 2002. Relationship between soil P and P in surface runoff and subsurface drainage: An overview of ongoing research. North Central Extension-Industry Soil Fertility Conference, vol. 18. Des Moines, IA. p. 183-189.
112. Kodikara, J.K., S.L. Barbour, and D.G. Fredlund. 2000. Desiccation cracking of soil layers. Proc. Asian Conference in Unsaturated Soils. UNSAT Asia 2000. Singapore. p. 693-698.
113. Koel, T.M., and K.E. Stevenson. 2002. Effects of dredge material placement on benthic macroinvertebrates of the Illinois River. Hydrobiology 474:229-238. doi:10.1023/A:1016500324467
114. Kornecki, T.S., and J.L. Fouss. 2001. Quantifying soil trafficability improvements provided by subsurface drainage for field crop operations in Louisiana. Appl. Eng. Agric. 17:777-781. doi:10.13031/2013.6846
115. Kovacic, D.A., M.B. David, L.E. Gentry, K.M. Starks, and R.A. Cooke. 2000. Effectiveness of constructed wetlands in reducing nitrogen and phosphorus export from agricultural tile drainage. J. Environ. Qual. 29:1262-1274. doi:10.2134/jeq2000.00472425002900040033x
116. Kröger, R., M.T. Moore, M.A. Locke, R.F. Cullum, R.W. Steinriede, Jr., S. Testa, III, C.T. Bryant, and C.M. Cooper. 2009. Evaluating the influence of wetland vegetation on chemical residence time in Mississippi delta drainage ditches. Agric. Water Manage. 96:1175-1179. doi:10.1016/j.agwat.2009.03.002
117. Kronvang, B., I.K. Andersen, C.C. Hoffman, M.L. Pedersen, N.B. Ovesen, and H.E. Andersen. 2007. Water exchange and deposition of sediment and phosphorus during inundation of natural and restored lowland floodplains. Water Air Soil Pollut. 181:115-121. doi:10.1007/s11270-006-9283-y
118. Kung, K.J.S., E.J. Kladivko, T.J. Gish, T.S. Steenhuis, G. Bubenzer, and C.S. Helling. 2000a. Quantifying preferential flow by breakthrough of sequentially applied tracers: Silt loam soil. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 64:1296-1304. doi:10.2136/sssaj2000.6441296x
119. Kung, K.J., T.S. Steenhuis, E.J. Kladivko, T.J. Gish, G. Bubenzer, and C.S. Helling. 2000b. Impact of preferential flow on the transport of adsorbing and non-adsorbing tracers. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 64:1290-1296. doi:10.2136/sssaj2000.6441290x
120. Laubel, A., O.H. Jacobsen, B. Kronvang, R. Grant, and H.E. Andersen. 1999. Subsurface drainage loss of particles and phosphorus from field plot experiments and a tile-drained catchment. J. Environ. Qual. 28:576-584. doi:10.2134/jeq1999.00472425002800020023x
121. Leinweber, P., R. Meissner, K.U. Eckhardt, and J. Seeger. 1999. Management effects on forms of phosphorus in soil and leaching losses. Eur. J. Soil Sci. 50:413-424. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2389.1999.00249.x
122. Lin, H., and X. Zhou. 2008. Evidence of subsurface preferential flow using soil hydrologic monitoring in the Shale Hills catchment. Eur. J. Soil Sci. 59:34-49. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2389.2007.00988.x
123. Logan, T.J., G.W. Randall, and D.R. Timmons. 1980. Nutrient content of tile drainage from cropland in the north central region. Research Bulletin 1119. North Central Regional Research Publication 268. Ohio Agricultural Research & Development Center, Wooster, OH.
124. Macrae, M.L., M.C. English, S.L. Schiff, and M. Stone. 2007. Intra-annual variability in the contribution of tile drains to basin discharge and phosphorus export in a first-order agricultural catchment. Agric. Water Manage. 92:171-182. doi:10.1016/j.agwat.2007.05.015
125. Macrae, M.L., M.C. English, S.L. Schiff, and M. Stone. 2010. Influence of antecedent hydrologic conditions on patterns of hydrochemical export from a first-order agricultural watershed in Southern Ontario, Canada. J. Hydrol. 389:101-110. doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2010.05.034
126. Madramootoo, C.A., K.A. Wiyo, and P. Enright. 1992. Nutrient losses through tile drains from two potato fields. Appl. Eng. Agric. 8:639-646. doi:10.13031/2013.26136
127. Madramootoo, C.A., W.R. Johnson, J.E. Ayars, R.O. Evans, and N.R. Fausey. 2007. Agricultural drainage management, quality, and disposal issues in North America. Irrig. Drain. 56:S35-S45. doi:10.1002/ird.343
128. Magner, J.A., G.A. Payne, and L.J. Steffen. 2004. Drainage effects on stream nitrate-n and hydrology in south-central Minnesota (USA). Environ. Monit. Assess. 91:183-198. doi:10.1023/B:EMAS.0000009235.50413.42
129. Maguire, R.O., and J.T. Sims. 2002. Soil testing to predict phosphorus leaching. J. Environ. Qual. 31:1601-1609. doi:10.2134/jeq2002.1601
130. McDowell, R.W., and A.N. Sharpley. 2001. Approximating phosphorus release from soils to surface runoff and subsurface drainage. J. Environ. Qual. 30:508-520. doi:10.2134/jeq2001.302508x
131. McDowell, R.W., A.N. Sharpley, L.M. Condron, P.M. Haygarth, and P.C. Brookes. 2001. Processes controlling soil phosphorus release to runoff and implications for agricultural management. Nutr. Cycling Agroecosyst. 59:269-284. doi:10.1023/A:1014419206761
132. McDowell, R.W., A.N. Sharpley, and W. Bourke. 2008. Treatment of drainage water with industrial by-products to prevent phosphorus loss from tiledrained land. J. Environ. Qual. 37:1575-1582. doi:10.2134/jeq2007.0454
133. McDowell, R.W., C. Gongol, and B. Woodward. 2012. Potential for controlled drainage to decrease nitrogen and phosphorus losses to Waituna Lagoon. Environment Southland, Southland, New Zealand.
134. McDowell, L.L., and K.C. McGregor. 1980. Nitrogen and phosphorus losses in runoff from no-till soybeans. Trans. ASABE 23:643-648. doi:10.13031/2013.34638
135. McDowell, R.W., R.M. Monaghan, L.C. Smith, G.F. Koopmans, and I. Stewart. 2005. Enhanced losses of phosphorus in mole-tile drainage water following short-term applications of dairy effluent to pasture. In: A.R. Burk, editor, Water pollution: New research. Nova Science Publishers, p. 55-76.
136. Miller, M.H. 1979. Contribution of nitrogen and phosphorus to subsurface drainage water from intensively cropped mineral and organic soils in Ontario. J. Environ. Qual. 8:42-48. doi:10.2134/jeq1979.00472425000800010011x
137. Mitsch, W.J., J.K. Cronk, X. Wu, R.W. Nairn, and D.L. Hey. 1995. Phosphorus retention in constructed freshwater riparian marshes. Ecol. Appl. 5:830-845. doi:10.2307/1941991
138. Nayak, A.K., R.S. Kanwar, P.N. Rekha, C.K. Hoang, and C.H. Pederson. 2009. Phosphorus leaching to subsurface drain water and soil P buildup in a longterm swine manure applied corn-soybean rotation system. Int. Agric. Eng. J. 18:25-33.
139. Needelman, B.A., P.J.A. Kleinman, J.S. Strock, and A.L. Allen. 2007. Improved management of agricultural drainage ditches for water quality protection:An overview. J. Soil Water Conserv. 62:171-178.
140. Nielsen, M.H., M. Styczen, V. Ernstsen, C.T. Petersen, and S. Hansen. 2010. Field study of preferential flow pathways in and between drain trenches. Vadose Zone J. 9:1073-1079. doi:10.2136/vzj2010.0013.
141. Ohio Phosphorus Task Force. 2013. Ohio Lake Erie Phosphorus Task Force II final report. Ohio Dep. of Agriculture, Columbus, OH.
142. Paasonen-Kivekas, M., and H. Koivusalo. 2006. Losses of sediment and phosphorus through subsurface drains in a clayey field in southern Finland. In: T. Tamm and L. Pietola, editors, Transport and retention of pollutants from different production systems. Nordic Association of Agricultural Scientist, Stockholm, Sweden. p. 95-100.
143. Pant, H.K., K.R. Reddy, and E. Lemon. 2001. Phosphorus retention capacity of root bed media of sub-surface flow constructed wetlands. Ecol. Eng. 17:345-355. doi:10.1016/S0925-8574(00)00134-8
144. Pavelis, G.A. 1987. Farm drainage in the United States: History, status, and prospects. Misc. Publ. No. 1455. Economic Research Service, USDA, Washington, DC.
145. Penn, C.J., R.B. Bryant, P.J.A. Kleinman, and A.L. Allen. 2007. Removing dissolved phosphorus from drainage ditch water with phosphorus sorbing materials. J. Soil Water Conserv. 62:269-276.
146. Peron, H., T. Hueckel, L. Laloui, and L.B. Hu. 2009. Fundamentals of desiccation cracking of fine grained soils: Experimental characterization and mechanisms identification. Can. Geotech. J. 46:1177-1201. doi:10.1139/T09-054
147. Peterson, G.A., and J.F. Power. 1991. Soil, crop, and water management. In:R.F. Follett, D.R. Keeney, and R.M. Cruse, editors, Managing nitrogen for groundwater quality and farm profitability. SSSA, Madison, WI. p. 189-198.
148. Philips, P.A., J.L.B. Culley, F.R. Hore, and N.K. Patni. 1981. Pollution potential and corn yields from selected rates and timing of liquid manure applications. Trans. ASAE 24:139-144. doi:10.13031/2013.34213
149. Pierzynski, G.M., R.W. McDowell, and J.T. Sims. 2005. Chemistry, cycling, and potential movement of inorganic phosphorus in soils. In: J.T. Sims and A.N. Sharpley, editors, Phosphorus: Agriculture and the environment. Agron. Monogr. 46. ASA, CSSA, and SSSA, Madison, WI. p. 53-86.
150. Poirier, S.C., J.K. Whalen, and A.R. Michaud. 2012. Bioavailable phosphorus in fine-sized sediments transported from agricultural fields. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 76:258-267. doi:10.2136/sssaj2010.0441
151. Pool, C.A., R.W. Skaggs, G.M. Chescheir, J.W. Gilliam, and M.R. Burchell, II. 2005. The effect of shallow subsurface drains on nitrate-N and phosphorus losses from tile drained agricultural lands. ASAE Annual International Meeting. 17-20 July 2005. Tampa, FL.
152. Pote, D.H., T.C. Daniel, A.N. Sharpley, P.A. Moore, Jr., D.R. Edwards, and D.J. Nichols. 1996. Relating extractable soil phosphorus to phosphorus in runoff. J. Environ. Qual. 60:855-859.
153. Powell, G.E., A.D. Ward, D.E. Mecklenburg, and A.D. Jayakaran. 2007. Twostage channel systems: Part 1, a practical approach for sizing agricultural ditches. J. Soil Water Conserv. 62:277-286.
154. Rabalais, N.N., R.E. Turner, and W.J. Wiseman. 2001. Hypoxia in the Gulf of Mexico. J. Environ. Qual. 30:320-329. doi:10.2134/jeq2001.302320x
155. Randall, G.W., and M.J. Goss. 2001. Nitrate losses to surface water through subsurface tile drainage. In: R.F. Follett and J.L. Hatfield, editors, Nitrogen in the environment: Source, problems, and management. Elsevier, New York. p. 95-122.
156. Reid, D.K., B. Ball, and T.Q. Zhang. 2012. Accounting for the risks of phosphorus losses through tile drains in a phosphorus index. J. Environ. Qual. 41:1720-1729. doi:10.2134/jeq2012.0238
157. Riley, K.D., M.J. Helmers, P.A. Lawlor, and R. Singh. 2009. Water balance investigation of drainage water management in non-weighing lysimeters. Appl. Eng. Agric. 25:507-513. doi:10.13031/2013.27470
158. Robinson, M., and D.W. Rycroft. 1999. The impact of drainage on stream flows. Agron. Monogr. 38:767-800.
159. Rockwell, D.C., G.J. Warren, P.E. Bertram, D.K. Salisbury, and N.M. Burns. 2005. The U.S. EPA Lake Erie indicators monitoring program 1983-2002:Trends in phosphorus, silica, and chlorophyll a in the central basin. J. Great Lakes Res. 31:23-34. doi:10.1016/S0380-1330(05)70302-6
160. Ruark, M., A. Madison, F. Madison, E. Cooley, D. Frame, T. Stuntebeck, and M. Komiskey. 2012. Phosphorus loss from tile drains: Should we be concerned? Univ. of Wisconsin, Madison, WI.
161. Sallade, Y.E., and J.T. Sims. 1997. Phosphorus transformations in the sediments of Delaware's agricultural drainageways: II. Effect of reducing conditions on phosphorus release. J. Environ. Qual. 26:1579-1588. doi:10.2134/jeq1997.00472425002600060018x
162. Savant, N.K., and R. Ellis, Jr. 1964. Changes in redox potential and phosphorus availability in submerged soil. Soil Sci. 98:388-394. doi:10.1097/00010694-196412000-00007
163. Sawhney, B.L. 1978. Leaching of phosphate from agricultural soils to groundwater. Water Air Soil Pollut. 9:499-505.
164. Scalenghe, R., A.C. Edwards, F. Ajmone Marsan, and E. Barberis. 2002. The effect of reducing conditions on the solubility and phosphorus in a diverse range of European agricultural soils. Eur. J. Soil Sci. 53:439-447. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2389.2002.00462.x
165. Schelde, K., L.W. de Jonge, C. Kjaergaard, M. Laegdsmand, and G.H. Rubaek. 2006. Effects of manure application and plowing on transport of colloids and phosphorus to tile drains. Vadose Zone J. 5:445-458. doi:10.2136/vzj2005.0051
166. Schilling, K.E., and M. Helmers. 2008. Effects of subsurface drainage tiles on streamflow in Iowa agricultural watersheds: Exploratory hydrography analysis. Hydrol. Processes 22:4497-4506. doi:10.1002/hyp.7052
167. Schindler, D.W., R.E. Hecky, D.L. Findlay, M.P. Stainton, B.R. Parker, M.J. Paterson, and S.E.M. Kasian. 2008. Eutrophication of lakes cannot be controlled by reducing nitrogen input: Results of a 37-year wholeecosystem experiment. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 105:11254-11258. doi:10.1073/pnas.0805108105
168. Schindler, D.W., R.E. Hecky, and G.K. McCullough. 2012. The rapid eutrophication of Lake Winnipeg: Greening under global change. J. Great Lakes Res. 38:6-13. doi:10.1016/j.jglr.2012.04.003
169. Schuman, G.E., R.G. Spomer, and R.F. Piest. 1973. Phosphorus losses from four agricultural watersheds on Missouri Valley Loess. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 37:424-427. doi:10.2136/sssaj1973.03615995003700030032x
170. Schwab, G.O., N.R. Fausey, and D.E. Kopcak. 1980. Sediment and chemical content of agricultural drainage water. Trans. ASAE 23:1446-1449. doi:10.13031/2013.34796
171. Schwab, G.O., E.O. McLean, A.C. Waldron, R.K. White, and D.W. Michener. 1973. Quality of drainage water from a heavy-textured soil. Trans. ASABE 16:1104-1107. doi:10.13031/2013.37707
172. Schwab, G.O., J.L. Fouss, and A.P. Leech. 1961. Rate, duration, and frequency of tile flow. Trans. ASABE 42:546-549.
173. Scott, C.A., L.D. Geohring, and M.F. Walter. 1998. Water quality impacts of tile drains in shallow, sloping, structured soils affected by manure application. Appl. Eng. Agric. 14:599-603. doi:10.13031/2013.19428
174. Serrano, S.E., H.R. Whiteley, and R.W. Irwin. 1985. Effects of agricultural drainage on streamflow in the Middle Thames River, Ontario, 1949-1980. Can. J. Civ. Eng. 12:875-885. doi:10.1139/l85-100
175. Seta, A.K., R.L. Brevins, W.W. Frye, and B.J. Barfield. 1993. Reducing soil erosion and agricultural chemical losses with conservation tillage. J. Environ. Qual. 22:661-665. doi:10.2134/jeq1993.00472425002200040004x
176. Shady, A.M. 1989. Irrigation, drainage, and flood control in Canada. Canadian National Committee on Irrigation and Drainage, Ottawa, ON, Canada.
177. Sharpley, A.N., and B. Moyer. 2000. Phosphorus forms in manure and compost and their release during simulated rainfall. J. Environ. Qual. 29:1462-1469. doi:10.2134/jeq2000.00472425002900050012x
178. Sharpley, A.N., R.W. McDowell, and P.J.A. Kleinman. 2001. Phosphorus loss from land to water: Integrating agricultural and environmental management. Plant Soil 237:287-307. doi:10.1023/A:1013335814593
179. Sharpley, A.N., T. Krogstad, P.J.A. Kleinman, B. Haggard, F. Shigaki, and L.S. Saporito. 2007. Managing natural processes in drainage ditches for nonpoint source phosphorus control. J. Soil Water Conserv. 62:197-206.
180. Shenker, M., S. Seitelbach, S. Brand, A. Haim, and M.I. Litaor. 2005. Redox reactions and phosphorus release in re-flooded soils of an altered wetland. Eur. J. Soil Sci. 56:515-525. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2389.2004.00692.x
181. Shigaki, F., P.J.A. Kleinman, J.P. Schmidt, A.N. Sharpley, and A.L. Allen. 2008. Impact of dredging on phosphorus transport in agricultural drainage ditches of the Atlantic Coastal Plain. J. Am. Water Resour. Assoc. 44:1500-1511. doi:10.1111/j.1752-1688.2008.00254.x
182. Shipitalo, M.J., and F. Gibbs. 2000. Potential of earthworm burrows to transmit injected animal wastes to tile drains. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 64:2103-2109. doi:10.2136/sssaj2000.6462103x
183. Simard, R.R., D. Cluis, G. Gangbazo, and S. Beauchemin. 1995. Phosphorus status of forest and agricultural soils from a watershed of high animal density. J. Environ. Qual. 24:1010-1017. doi:10.2134/jeq1995.00472425002400050033x
184. Simard, R.R., S. Beauchemin, and P.M. Haygarth. 2000. Potential for preferential pathways of phosphorus transport. J. Environ. Qual. 29:97-105. doi:10.2134/jeq2000.00472425002900010012x
185. Sims, J.T., R.R. Simard, and B.C. Joern. 1998. Phosphorus loss in agricultural drainage: Historical perspective and current research. J. Environ. Qual. 27:277-293. doi:10.2134/jeq1998.00472425002700020006x
186. Singh, P., and R.S. Kanwar. 1991. Preferential solute transport through macropores in large undisturbed saturated soil columns. J. Environ. Qual. 20:295-300. doi:10.2134/jeq1991.00472425002000010048x
187. Skaggs, R.W., M.A. Breve, and J.W. Gilliam. 1994. Hydrologic and water quality impacts of agricultural drainage. Crit. Rev. Environ. Sci. Technol. 24:1-32. doi:10.1080/10643389409388459
188. Skaggs, R.W., N.R. Fausey, and R.O. Evans. 2012. Drainage water management. J. Soil Water Conserv. 67:167A-172A. doi:10.2489/jswc.67.6.167A
189. Smedema, L.K., and D.W. Rycroft. 1983. Land drainage: Planning and design of agricultural drainage systems. Cornell Univ. Press, Ithaca, NY.
190. Smith, D.R., and C. Huang. 2010. Assessing nutrient transport following dredging of agricultural drainage ditches. Trans. ASABE 53:429-436. doi:10.13031/2013.29583
191. Smith, D.R., and S.J. Livingston. 2013. Managing farmed closed depressional areas using blind inlets to minimize phosphorus and nitrogen loss. Soil Use Manage. 29:94-102. doi:10.1111/j.1475-2743.2012.00441.x
192. Smith, D.R., S.J. Livingston, B.W. Suercher, M. Larose, G.C. Heathman, and C. Huang. 2008. Nutrient losses from row crop agriculture in Indiana. J. Soil Water Conserv. 63:396-409. doi:10.2489/jswc.63.6.396
193. Smith, D.R., E.A. Warnemuende, B.E. Haggard, and C. Huang. 2006. Dredging of drainage ditches increases short-term transport of soluble phosphorus. J. Environ. Qual. 35:611-616. doi:10.2134/jeq2005.0301
194. Smith, K.A., A.G. Chalmers, B.J. Chalmers, and P. Christie. 1998. Organic manure phosphorus accumulation, mobility, and management. Soil Use Manage. 14:154-159. doi:10.1111/j.1475-2743.1998.tb00634.x
195. Smith, R.V., S.D. Lennox, C. Jordan, R.H. Foy, and E. McHale. 1995. Increase in soluble phosphorus transported in drainflow from a grassland catchment in response to soil phosphorus accumulation. Soil Use Manage. 11:204-209. doi:10.1111/j.1475-2743.1995.tb00957.x
196. Sommers, L.E., D.W. Nelson, and L.B. Owens. 1979. Status of inorganic phosphorus in soils irrigated with municipal wastewater. Soil Sci. 127:340-350. doi:10.1097/00010694-197906000-00004
197. Spaling, H., and B. Smit. 1995. Conceptual model of cumulative environmental effects of agricultural land drainage. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 53:299-308.
198. Stamm, C., H. Fluhler, R. Gachter, J. Leuenberger, and H. Wunderli. 1998. Preferential transport of phosphorus in drained grassland soils. J. Environ. Qual. 27:515-522. doi:10.2134/jeq1998.00472425002700030006x
199. Stone, M., and A. Mudroch. 1989. The effect of particle size, chemistry, and mineralogy of river sediments on phosphate adsorption. Environ. Technol. Lett. 10:501-510. doi:10.1080/09593338909384766
200. Stone, M., and B.G. Krishnappan. 2002. The effect of irrigation on tile sediment transport in a headwater agricultural stream. Water Res. 36:3439-3448. doi:10.1016/S0043-1354(02)00073-8
201. Stone, W.W., and J.T. Wilson. 2006. Preferential flow estimates to an agricultural tile drain with implications for glyphosate transport. J. Environ. Qual. 35:1825-1835. doi:10.2134/jeq2006.0068
202. Strock, J.S., P.J.A. Kleinman, K.W. King, and J.A. Delgado. 2010. Drainage water management for water quality protection. J. Soil Water Conserv. 65:131A-136A. doi:10.2489/jswc.65.6.131A
203. Sugg, Z. 2007. Assessing U.S. Farm Drainage: Can GIS lead to better estimates of subsurface drainage extent? World Resources Institute Bulletin, Washington, DC.
204. Tan, C.S., C.F. Drury, W.D. Reynolds, J.D. Gaynor, T.Q. Zhang, and H.Y.F. Ng. 2002. Effect of long-term conventional tillage and no-tillage systems on soil and water quality at the field scale. Water Sci. Technol. 46:183-190.
205. Tan, C.S., and T.Q. Zhang. 2011. Surface runoff and sub-surface drainage phosphorus losses under regular free drainage and controlled drainage with sub-irrigation systems in southern Ontario. Can. J. Soil Sci. 91:349-359. doi:10.4141/cjss09086
206. Tanner, C.C., M.L. Nguyen, and J.P.S. Sukias. 2005. Nutrient removal by a constructed wetland treating subsurface drainage from grazed dairy pasture. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 105:145-162. doi:10.1016/j.agee.2004.05.008
207. Tomer, M.D., C.G. Wilson, T.B. Morreman, K.J. Cole, D. Heer, and T.M. Isenhart. 2010. Source-pathway separation of multiple contaminants during a rainfall-runoff event in an artificially drained watershed. J. Environ. Qual. 39:882-895. doi:10.2134/jeq2009.0289
208. Tomer, M.D., D.W. Meek, and L.A. Kramer. 2005. Agricultural practices influence flow regimes of headwater streams in Western Iowa. J. Environ. Qual. 34:1547-1558. doi:10.2134/jeq2004.0199
209. Turtola, E., and A. Jaakkola. 1995. Loss of phosphorus by surface runoff and leaching from a heavy clay soil under barley and grass ley in Finland. Acta Agric. Scand. B 45:159-165.
210. Udawatta, R.P., P.P. Motavalli, and H.E. Garrett. 2004. Phosphorus loss and runoff characteristics in three adjacent agricultural watersheds with claypan soil. J. Environ. Qual. 33:1709-1719. doi:10.2134/jeq2004.1709
211. Ulen, B. 1995. Episodic precipitation and discharge events and their influence on losses of phosphorus and nitrogen from tile drained arable fields. Swed. J. Agric. Res. 25:25-31.
212. Ulen, B., and K. Persson. 1999. Field-scale phosphorus losses from a drained clay soil in Sweden. Hydrol. Processes 13:2801-2812. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1099-1085(19991215)13:17<2801::AID-HYP900>3.0.CO;2-G
213. USEPA. 2014. State development of numeric criteria for nitrogen and phosphorus pollution. http://cfpub.epa.gov/wqsits/nnc-development/(accessed 2 Sept. 2014).
214. Ulen, B., and L. Mattsson. 2003. Transport of phosphorus forms and of nitrate through a clay soil under grass and cereal production. Nutr. Cycl. Agroecosyst. 65:129-140. doi:10.1023/A:1022133031584
215. Uusitalo, R., E. Turtola, T. Kauppila, and T. Lilja. 2001. Particulate phosphorus and sediment in surface runoff and drainflow from clayey soils. J. Environ. Qual. 30:589-595. doi:10.2134/jeq2001.302589x
216. Vadas, P.A., and J.T. Sims. 1998. Redox status, poultry litter, and phosphorus solubility in Atlantic coastal plain soils. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 62:1025-1034. doi:10.2136/sssaj1998.03615995006200040025x
217. Valero, C.S., C.A. Madramootoo, and N. Stampfli. 2007. Water table management impacts on phosphorus loads in tile drainage. Agric. Water Manage. 89:71-80. doi:10.1016/j.agwat.2006.12.007
218. van Es, H.M., R.R. Schindelbeck, and W.E. Jokela. 2004. Effect of manure application timing, crop, and soil type on phosphorus leaching. J. Environ. Qual. 33:1070-1080.
219. Vaughan, R.E., B.A. Needelman, P.J.A. Kleinman, and A.L. Allen. 2007. Spatial variation of soil phosphorus within a drainage ditch network. J. Environ. Qual. 36:1096-1104. doi:10.2134/jeq2006.0095
220. Vidon, P., H. Hubbard, P.E. Cuadra, and M. Hennessy. 2012. Storm flow generation in artificially drained landscapes of the US Midwest: Matrix flow, macropore flow, or overland flow. Water 4:90-111.
221. Vidon, P., and P.E. Cuadra. 2011. Phosphorus dynamics in tile-drain flow during storms in the US Midwest. Agric. Water Manage. 98:532-540. doi:10.1016/j.agwat.2010.09.010
222. Vitosh, M.L., J.W. Johnson, and D.B. Mengel. 1995. Tri-state fertilizer recommendations for corn, soybeans, wheat, and alfalfa. Ohio State University Agricultural Extension Bulletin E-2567. http://ohioline.osu. edu/e2567/index.html (accessed 1 Mar. 2014).
223. Vohla, C., M. Kõiv, H.J. Bavor, F. Chazarenc, and Ű. Mander. 2011. Filter materials for phosphorus removal from wastewater in treatment wetlands:A review. Ecol. Eng. 37:70-89. doi:10.1016/j.ecoleng.2009.08.003
224. Wahba, M.A.S., M. El-Ganainy, M.S. Abdel-Dayem, A. Gobran, and H. Kandil. 2001. Controlled drainage effects on water quality under semiarid conditions in the western delta of Egypt. Irrig. Drain. 50:295-308. doi:10.1002/ird.29
225. Ward, A., D. Mecklenburg, G.E. Powell, L. Brown, and A. Jayakaran. 2004. Twostage channel design procedures. Proc. for the ASAE Specialty Conf. "Selfsustaining solutions for streams, wetlands and watersheds." ASAE, St. Paul, MN.
226. Weaver, M.M. 1964. The history of tile drainage (in America prior to 1900). M.M. Weaver, Waterloo, NY.
227. Wesström, I., and I. Messing. 2007. Effects of controlled drainage on N and P losses and N dynamics in a loamy sand with spring crops. Agric. Water Manage. 87:229-240. doi:10.1016/j.agwat.2006.07.005
228. Westholm, L.J. 2006. Substrates for phosphorus removal: Potential benefits for on-site wastewater treatment? Water Res. 40:23-36. doi:10.1016/j. watres.2005.11.006
229. Williams, J.R., and R.C. Izaurralde. 2000. The APEX model. Blackland Research Center (BRC) Report No. 00, 6.Texas Agricultural Experiment Station, Temple, TX.
230. Williams, M.R., G.W. Feyereisen, D.B. Beegle, and R.D. Shannon. 2012. Soil temperature regulates phosphorus loss from lysimeters following fall and winter manure application. Trans. ASABE 55:871-880. doi:10.13031/2013.41529
231. Wilson, B.N., H.V. Nguyen, U.B. Singh, S. Morgan, P. Van Buren, D. Mickelson, E. Jahnke, and B. Hansen. 1999. Evaluations of alternative designs for surface tile inlets using prototype studies. Report 417121. Minnesota Dep. of Agriculture, St. Paul, MN.
232. Withers, P.J.A., B. Ulen, C. Stamm, and M. Bechmann. 2003. Incidental phosphorus losses- are they significant and can they be predicted? J. Plant Nutr. Soil Sci. 166:459-468. doi:10.1002/jpln.200321165
233. Wright, J., and G.R. Sands. 2001. Planning an agricultural subsurface drainage system. Minnesota Extension Bulletin BU-07685-S. University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN.
234. Wright, R.B., B.G. Lockaby, and M.R. Walbridge. 2001. Phosphorus availability in an artificially flooded southeastern floodplain forest soil. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 65:1293-1302. doi:10.2136/sssaj2001.6541293x
235. Xue, Y., M.B. David, L.E. Gentry, and D.A. Kovacic. 1998. Kinetics and modeling of dissolved phosphorus export from a tile-drained agricultural watershed. J. Environ. Qual. 27:917-922. doi:10.2134/jeq1998.00472425002700040028x
236. Young, E.O., and R.D. Briggs. 2008. Phosphorus concentrations in soil and subsurface water: A field study among cropland and riparian buffers. J. Environ. Qual. 37:69-78. doi:10.2134/jeq2006.0422
237. Zhang, T.Q., Q.C. Hu, Y.T. Wang, C.S. Tan, I. O'Halloran, C.F. Drury, D.K. Reid, B. Ball-Coelho, B.L. Ma, T. Welacky, W.D. Reynolds, J.D. Lauzon, D. Speranzini, I. MacDonald, and G. Patterson. 2009. Determination of some key factors for Ontario soil P index and effectiveness of manure application practices for mitigating risk to water resources. Report NM8002 to the Nutrient Management Joint Research Program. Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs, Ontario Ministry of Environment, Guelph, Ontario, Canada.
238. Zhao, S.L., S.C. Gupta, D.R. Huggins, and J.F. Moncrief. 2001. Tillage and nutrient source effects on surface and subsurface water quality at corn planting. J. Environ. Qual. 30:998-1008. doi:10.2134/jeq2001.303998x
239. Zhu, Y., and R.H. Fox. 2003. Corn-soybean rotation effects on nitrate leaching. J. Environ. Qual. 95:1028-1033.
240. Zucker, L.A., and L.C. Brown. 1998. Agricultural drainage: Water quality impacts and subsurface drainage studies in the Midwest. University of Minnesota Extension, St. Paul, MN.