Raynaud's phenomenon

Scleroderma: From Pathogenesis to Comprehensive Management

Volumn , Issue , 2012, Pages 313-329

  Wigley, Fredrick M ^a   Herrick, Ariane L ^b  

^a JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF MANCHESTER   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Calcium channel blocker; Endothelium; Phosphodiesterase inhibition; Primary RP; Prostanoids; Secondary RP; Thermoregulatory vessels

Indexed keywords

EID: 84923186856     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4419-5774-0_26     Document Type: Chapter

References (97)

1. LeRoy EC, Medsger Jr TA. Raynaud's phenomenon: a proposal for classification. Clin Exp Rheumatol. 1992;10:485-8.
2. McKemy DD. How cold is it? TRPM8 and TRPA1 in the molecular logic of cold sensation. Mol Pain. 2005;1:16.
3. Schepers RJ, Ringkamp M. Thermoreceptors and thermosensitive afferents. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2010;34:177-84.
4. McKemy DD, Neuhausser WM, Julius D. Identification of a cold receptor reveals a general role for TRP channels in thermosensation. Nature. 2002;416:52-8.
5. Charkoudian N. Mechanisms and modifiers of reflex induced cutaneous vasodilation and vasoconstriction in humans. J Appl Physiol. 2010;109:1221-8.
6. Coffman JD, Cohen AS. Total and capillary fingertip blood flow in Raynaud's phenomenon. N Engl J Med. 1971;285:259-63.
7. Hummers LK, Wigley FM. Management of Raynaud's phenomenon and digital ischemic lesions in scleroderma. Rheum Dis Clin North Am. 2003;29:293-313.
8. Suter LG, Murabito JM, Felson DT, et al. The incidence and natural history of Raynaud's phenomenon in the community. Arthritis Rheum. 2005;52:1259-63.
9. Freedman RR, Mayes MD. Familial aggregation of primary Raynaud's disease. Arthritis Rheum. 1996;39:1189-91.
10. Rodnan GP, Myerowitz RL, Justh GO. Morphologic changes in the digital arteries of patients with progressive systemic sclerosis (scleroderma) and Raynaud phenomenon. Medicine (Baltimore). 1980;59:393-408.
11. Steen V, Denton CP, Pope JE, et al. Digital ulcers: overt vascular disease in systemic sclerosis. Rheumatology (Oxford). 2009;48(Suppl 3):iii19-24.
12. Maricq HR, Downey JA, LeRoy EC. Standstill of nailfold capillary blood flow during cooling in scleroderma and Raynaud's syndrome. Blood Vessels. 1976;13:338-49.
13. Flavahan NA. Regulation of vascular reactivity in scleroderma: new insights into Raynaud's phenomenon. Rheum Dis Clin North Am. 2008;34:81-7.
14. Freedman RR, Moten M, Migály P, et al. Cold-induced potentiation of alpha 2-adrenergic vasoconstriction in primary Raynaud's disease. Arthritis Rheum. 1993;36:685-90.
15. Wise RA, Wigley FM, White B, et al. Efficacy and tolerability of a selective alpha(2 C)-adrenergic receptor blocker in recovery from coldinduced vasospasm in scleroderma patients: a single-center, double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized crossover study. Arthritis Rheum. 2004;50:3994-4001.
16. Chotani MA, Flavahan S, Mitra S, et al. Silent alpha(2 C)-adrenergic receptors enable cold-induced vasoconstriction in cutaneous arteries. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2000;27:H1075-83.
17. Bailey SR, Mitra S, Flavahan S, et al. Reactive oxygen species from smooth muscle mitochondria initiate cold-induced constriction of cutaneous arteries. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2005;289:H243-50.
18. 2-adrenergic but not alpha 1-adrenergic antagonists in idiopathic Raynaud's disease. Circulation. 1995;92:1448-51.
19. Flavahan NA, Flavahan S, Liu Q, et al. Increased alpha2-adrenergic constriction of isolated arterioles in diffuse scleroderma. Arthritis Rheum. 2000;43:1886-90.
20. Furspan PB, Chatterjee S, Mayes MD, et al. Cooling-induced contraction and protein tyrosine kinase activity of isolated arterioles in secondary Raynaud's phenomenon. Rheumatology (Oxford). 2005;44:488-94.
21. Furspan PB, Chatterjee S, Freedman RR. Increased tyrosine phosphorylation mediates the cooling-induced contraction and increased vascular reactivity of Raynaud's disease. Arthritis Rheum. 2004;50:1578-85.
22. Generini S, Seibold JR, Matucci-Cerinic M. Estrogens and neuropeptides in Raynaud's phenomenon. Rheum Dis Clin North Am. 2005;31:177-86.
23. Bunker CB, Terenghi G, Springall DR, et al. Deficiency of calcitonin gene-related peptide in Raynaud's phenomenon. Lancet. 1990;336:1530-3.
24. Bunker CB, Reavley C, O'Shaughnessy DJ, et al. Calcitonin gene-related peptide in treatment of severe peripheral vascular insufficiency in Raynaud's phenomenon. Lancet. 1993;342:80-3.
25. Stephens DP, Saad AR, Bennett LA, et al. Neuropeptide Y antagonism reduces reflex cutaneous vasoconstriction in humans. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2004;287:H1404-9.
26. Chung MS, Gong HS, Baek GH. Prevalence of Raynaud's phenomenon in patients with idiopathic carpal tunnel syndrome. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1999;81:1017-9.
27. Tabata H, Yamakage A, Yamazaki S. Cutaneous localization of endothelin-1 in patients with systemic sclerosis: immunoelectron microscopic study. Int J Dermatol. 1997;36:272-5.
28. Freedman RR, Girgis R, Mayes MD. Endothelial and adrenergic dysfunction in Raynaud's phenomenon and scleroderma. J Rheumatol. 1999;26:2386-8.
29. Abraham DJ, Krieg T, Distler J, et al. Overview of pathogenesis of systemic sclerosis. Rheumatology (Oxford). 2009;48(Suppl 3):iii3-7.
30. Kahaleh MB. Endothelin, an endothelial-dependent vasoconstrictor in scleroderma. Enhanced production and profibrotic action. Arthritis Rheum. 1991;34:978-83.
31. Freedman RR, Girgis R, Mayes MD. Acute effect of nitric oxide on Raynaud's phenomenon in scleroderma. Lancet. 1999;354:739.
32. Blaise S, Maas R, Trocme C, et al. Correlation of biomarkers of endothelium dysfunction and matrix remodelling in patients with systemic sclerosis. J Rheumatol. 2009;36:984-8.
33. Sinici I, Kalyoncu U, Karahan S, et al. Endothelial nitric oxide gene polymorphism and risk of systemic sclerosis: predisposition effect of T-786 C promoter and protective effect of 27 bp repeats in Intron 4. Clin Exp Rheumatol. 2010;28:169-75.
34. Reilly IA, Roy L, Fitzgerald GA. Biosynthesis of thromboxane in patients with systemic sclerosis and Raynaud's phenomenon. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed). 1986;292:1037-9.
35. Pamuk GE, Turgut B, Pamuk ON, et al. Increased circulating platelet-leucocyte complexes in patients with primary Raynaud's phenomenon and Raynaud's phenomenon secondary to systemic sclerosis: a comparative study. Blood Coagul Fibrinolysis. 2007;18:297-302.
36. Wigley FM. Raynaud's phenomenon is linked to unopposed estrogen replacement therapy in postmenopausal women. Clin Exp Rheumatol. 2001;19:10-1.
37. 2C-adrenoceptors and cold-induced constriction of cutaneous arteries. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2007;293:H1955-61.
38. Bruckdorfer KR, Hillary JB, Bunce T, et al. Increased susceptibility to oxidation of low-density lipoproteins isolated from patients with systemic sclerosis. Arthritis Rheum. 1995;38:1060-7.
39. Denton CP, Bunce TD, Dorado MB, et al. Probucol improves symptoms and reduces lipoprotein oxidation susceptibility in patients with Raynaud's phenomenon. Rheumatology (Oxford). 1999;38:309-15.
40. Faller DV. Endothelial cell responses to hypoxic stress. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol. 1999;26:74-84.
41. Maricq HR, LeRoy EC. Patterns of finger capillary abnormalities in connective tissue disease by 'widefield' microscopy. Arthritis Rheum. 1973;16:619-28.
42. Herrick AL, Cutolo M. Clinical implications from capillaroscopic analysis in patients with Raynaud's phenomenon and systemic sclerosis. Arthritis Rheum. 2010;62:2595-604.
43. Darton K, Black CM. Pyroelectric vidicon thermography and cold challenge quantify the severity of Raynaud's phenomenon. Br J Rheumatol. 1991;30:190-5.
44. O'Reilly D, Taylor L, El-Hadidy K, et al. Measurement of cold challenge responses in primary Raynaud's phenomenon and Raynaud's phenomenon associated with systemic sclerosis. Ann Rheum Dis. 1992;51:1193-6.
45. Clark S, Hollis S, Campbell F, et al. The 'distal-dorsal difference' as a possible predictor of secondary Raynaud's phenomenon. J Rheumatol. 1999;26:1125-8.
46. Anderson ME, Moore TL, Lunt M, et al. The 'distal-dorsal difference': a thermographic parameter by which to differentiate between primary and secondary Raynaud's phenomenon. Rheumatology. 2007;46:533-8.
47. Clark S, Campbell F, Moore T, et al. Laser Doppler imaging-a new technique for quantifying microcirculatory flow in patients with primary Raynaud's phenomenon and systemic sclerosis. Microvasc Res. 1999;57:284-91.
48. Maricq HR, Weinrich MC, Valter I, et al. Digital vascular responses to cooling in subjects with cold sensitivity, primary Raynaud's phenomenon, or scleroderma-spectrum disorders. J Rheumatol. 1996;23:2068-78.
49. LeRoy EC, Medsger TA. Criteria for the classification of early systemic sclerosis. J Rheumatol. 2001;28:1573-6.
50. Matucci-Cerinic M, Allanore Y, Czirják L, et al. The challenge of early systemic sclerosis for the EULAR Scleroderma Trial and Research Group (EUSTAR) community: it is time to cut the Gordian knot and develop a prevention or rescue strategy. Ann Rheum Dis. 2009;68:1377-80.
51. Anders HJ, Sigl T, Schattenkirchner M. Differentiation between primary and secondary Raynaud's phenomenon: a prospective study comparing nailfold capillaroscopy using an opthalmoscope or stereomicroscope. Ann Rheum Dis. 2001;60:407-9.
52. Bergman R, Sharony L, Shapira D, et al. The handheld dermatoscope as a nail-fold capillaroscopic instrument. Arch Dermatol. 2003;139:1027-30.
53. Baron M, Bell M, Bookman A, et al. Office capillaroscopy in systemic sclerosis. Clin Rheumatol. 2007;26:1268-74.
54. Moore TL, Murray AK, Roberts C, et al. Reliability of dermoscopy in the assessment of patients with Raynaud's phenomenon. Rheumatology. 2010;49:542-7.
55. Hudson M, Taileerfer S, Steele R, et al. Improving the sensitivity of the American College of Rheumatology classification criteria for systemic sclerosis. Clin Exp Rheumatol. 2007;25:754-7.
56. White C. Intermittent claudication. N Eng J Med. 2007;356:1241-50.
57. Hasegawa M, Nagai Y, Tamura A, et al. Arteriographic evaluation of vascular changes of the extremities in patients with systemic sclerosis. Br J Dermatol. 2006;155:1159-64.
58. Allanore Y, Seror R, Chevrot A, et al. Hand vascular involvement assessed by magnetic resonance angiography in systemic sclerosis. Arthritis Rheum. 2007;56:2747-54.
59. Anderson ME, Allen PD, Moore T, et al. Computerised nailfold video capillaroscopy-a new tool for the assessment of Raynaud's phenomenon. J Rheumatol. 2005;32:841-8.
60. Murray A, Herrick AL, King TA. Laser Doppler imaging: a developing technique for application in the rheumatic diseases. Rheumatology. 2004;43:1210-8.
61. Murray AK, Moore TL, Manning JB, et al. Noninvasive imaging techniques in the assessment of scleroderma spectrum disorders. Arthritis Care Res. 2009;61:1103-11.
62. Thompson AE, Shea B, Welch V, et al. Calcium-channel blockers for Raynaud's phenomenon in systemic sclerosis. Arthritis Rheum. 2001;44:1841-7.
63. Sturgill MG, Seibold JR. Rational use of calcium-channel antagonists in Raynaud's phenomenon. Curr Opin Rheumatol. 1998;10:584-8.
64. Malamet R, Wise RA, Ettinger WH, et al. Nifedipine in the treatment of Raynaud's phenomenon. Evidence for inhibition of platelet activation. Am J Med. 1985;78:602-608.
65. Allanore Y, Borderie D, Lemarechal H, et al. Acute and sustained effects of dihydropyridine-type calcium channel antagonists on oxidative stress in systemic sclerosis. Am J Med. 2004;116:595-600.
66. Fishman AP. Pulmonary hypertension-beyond vasodilator therapy. N Eng J Med. 1998;338:321-2.
67. Wigley FM, Wise RA, Seibold JR, et al. Intravenous iloprost infusion in patients with Raynaud phenomenon secondary to systemic sclerosis. A multicenter, placebo-controlled, double-blind study. Ann Intern Med. 1994;120:199-206.
68. Pope J, Fenlon D, Thompson A, et al. Iloprost and cisaprost for Raynaud's phenomenon in progressive systemic sclerosis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2000;2:CD000953.
69. Wigley FM, Korn JH, Csuka ME, et al. Oral iloprost treatment in patients with Raynaud's phenomenon secondary to systemic sclerosis:a multi-center, placebo-controlled, double-blind study. Arthritis Rheum. 1998;41:670-7.
70. Vayssairat M. Preventative effect of an oral prostacyclin analog, beroprost sodium, on digital necrosis in systemic sclerosis. French Microcirculation Society Multicentre Group for the Study of Vascular Acrosyndromes. J Rheumatol. 1999;26:2173-88.
71. Anderson ME, Moore TL, Hollis S, et al. Digital vascular response to topical glyceryl trinitrate, as measured by laser Doppler imaging, in primary Raynaud's phenomenon and systemic sclerosis. Rheumatology. 2002;41:324-8.
72. Teh LS, Manning J, Moore T, et al. Sustained-release transdermal glyceryl trinitrate patches as a treatment for primary and secondary Raynaud's phenomenon. Br J Rheumatol. 1995;34:636-41.
73. Chung L, Shapiro L, Fiorentino D, et al. MQX-503, a novel formulation of nitroglycerin, improves the severity of Raynaud's phenomenon. Arthritis Rheum. 2009;60:870-7.
74. Fries R, Shariat K, von Wilmowsky H, et al. Sildenafil in the treatment of Raynaud's phenomenon resistant to vasodilatory therapy. Circulation. 2005;112:2980-5.
75. Schiopu E, Hsu VM, Impens AJ, et al. Randomized placebo-controlled crossover trial of tadalafil in Raynaud's phenomenon secondary to systemic sclerosis. J Rheumatol. 2009;36:2264-8.
76. Herrick AL, van den Hoogen F, Gabrielli A, et al. Modified-release sildenafil reduces Raynaud's attack frequency in limited cutaneous systemic sclerosis. Arthritis Rheum. 2011;63:775-82.
77. Gliddon AE, Doré CJ, Black CM, et al. Prevention of vascular damage in scleroderma and autoimmune Raynaud's phenomenon: a randomised controlled trial of the ACE-inhibitor quinapril. Arthritis Rheum. 2007;56:3837-46.
78. Dziadzio M, Denton CP, Smith R, et al. Losartan therapy for Raynaud's phenomenon and scleroderma: clinical and biochemical findings in a fifteen-week, randomized, parallel-group, controlled trial. Arthritis Rheum. 1999;42:2646-55.
79. Pope J, Fenlon D, Thompson A, Shea B, Furst D, Wells G, et al. Prazosin for Raynaud's phenomenon in progressive systemic sclerosis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2000;2:CD000956.
80. Korn JH, Mayes M, Matucci-Cerinic M, et al. For the RAPIDS-1 study group. Digital ulcers in systemic sclerosis. Prevention by treatment with bosentan, an oral endothelin receptor antagonist. Arthritis Rheum. 2004;50:3985-93.
81. Matucci-Cerinic M, Denton CP, Furst DE, et al. Bosentan treatment of digital ulcers related to systemic sclerosis: results from the RAPIDS-2 randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Ann Rheum Dis. 2011;70:32-8.
82. Bose N, Bena JF, Trunick CM, et al. Evaluation of the effect of ambrisentan on digital microvascular flow in patients with systemic sclerosis using laser Doppler perfusion imaging (abstract). Arthritis Rheum. 2010;62(Suppl):S239-40.
83. Coleiro B, Marshall SE, Denton CP, et al. Treatment of Raynaud's phenomemon with the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor fluoxetine. Rheumatology. 2001;40:1038-43.
84. Denton CP, Howell K, Stratton RJ, et al. Long-term low molecular weight heparin therapy for severe Raynaud's phenomenon: a pilot study. Clin Exp Rheumatol. 2000;18:499-502.
85. Lakshminarayanan S, Maestrello SJ, Vazquez-Abad D, et al. Treatment of severe Raynaud's phenomenon and ischemic ulcerations with tissue plasminogen activator. Clin Exp Rheumatol. 1999;17:260.
86. Herrick AL, Matucci CM. The emerging problem of oxidative stress and the role of antioxidants in systemic sclerosis. Clin Exp Rheumatol. 2001;19:4-8.
87. Rosato E, Borghese F, Pisarri S, et al. The treatment with N-acetylcysteine of Raynaud's phenomenon and ischemic ulcers therapy in sclerodermic patients: a prospective observational trial of 50 patients. Clin Exp Rheumatol. 2009;28:1379-84.
88. Abou-Raya A, Abou-Raya S, Helmii M. Statins as immunomodulators in systemic sclerosis. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2007;1110:670-80.
89. Abou-Raya A, Abou-Raya S, Helmii M. Statins: potentially useful in therapy of systemic sclerosis-related Raynaud's phenomenon and digital ulcers. J Rheumatol. 2008;35:1801-8.
90. Chrysant SG. Vascular remodeling: the role of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors. Am Heart J. 1998;135:S21-30.
91. Kirchengast M, Munter K. Endothelin-1 and endothelin receptor antagonists in cardiovascular remodeling. PSEBM. 1999;221:312-25.
92. Veale DJ, Collidge TA, Belch JJF. Increased prevalence of symptomatic macrovascular disease in systemic sclerosis. Ann Rheum Dis. 1995;54:853-5.
93. Ho M, Veale D, Eastmond C, et al. Macrovascular disease and systemic sclerosis. Ann Rheum Dis. 2000;59:39-43.
94. Youseff P, Brama T, Englert H, et al. Limited scleroderma is associated with increased prevalence of macrovascular disease. J Rheumatol. 1995;22:469-72.
95. Hartzell TL, Makhni EC, Sampson C. Long-term results of periarterial sympathectomy. J Hand Surg Am. 2009;34:1454-60.
96. Tomaino MM, Goitz RJ, Medsger TA. Surgery for ischemic pain and Raynaud's phenomenon in scleroderma: a description of treament protocol and evaluation of results. Microsurgery. 2001;21:75-9.
97. Yee AMF, Hotchkiss RN, Paget SA. Advential stripping: a digit saving procedure in refractory Raynaud's phenomenon. J Rheumatol. 1998;25:269-76.