Alcohol use disorders in opioid maintenance therapy: Prevalence, clinical correlates and treatment

European Addiction Research

Volumn 21, Issue 2, 2015, Pages 78-87

  Soyka, Michael ^a,b  

^a LUDWIG MAXIMILIANS UNIVERSITY   (Germany)

^b Private Hospital Meiringen   (Switzerland)

Author keywords

Alcohol; Alcoholism opioids; Buprenorphine; Maintenance therapy; Methadone; Opioid dependence

Indexed keywords

ALCOHOL; BUPRENORPHINE; METHADONE; OPIATE; NARCOTIC AGENT;

ALCOHOL ABUSE; ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION; ALCOHOL USE DISORDER; ALCOHOLISM; HUMAN; LIVER DISEASE; LIVER TOXICITY; MAINTENANCE THERAPY; MENTAL HEALTH; MORTALITY; OPIATE ADDICTION; PREVALENCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; ALCOHOL-RELATED DISORDERS; BRAIN; COMORBIDITY; DRINKING BEHAVIOR; DRUG EFFECTS; DRUG-INDUCED LIVER INJURY; OPIATE SUBSTITUTION TREATMENT; OPIOID-RELATED DISORDERS;

ALCOHOL DRINKING; ALCOHOL-RELATED DISORDERS; BRAIN; BUPRENORPHINE; COMORBIDITY; DRUG-INDUCED LIVER INJURY; HUMANS; METHADONE; NARCOTICS; OPIATE SUBSTITUTION TREATMENT; OPIOID-RELATED DISORDERS; PREVALENCE;

EID: 84922321675     PISSN: 10226877     EISSN: 14219891     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1159/000363232     Document Type: Review

References (133)

1. EMCDDA: Mortality Related to Drug Use in Europe: Public Health Implications. Lisbon, EMCDDA, 2011.
2. Mathers BM, Degenhardt L, Phillips B, Wiessing L, Hickman M, Strathdee SA, Wodak A, Panda S, Tyndall M, Toufik A, Mattick RP: Global epidemiology of injecting drug use and HIV among people who inject drugs: a systematic review. Lancet 2008; 372: 1733-1745.
3. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime: 2006 World Drug Report. Vienna, UNODC, 2006.
4. Kessler RC, Avenevoli S, Costello EJ, Georgiades K, Green JG, Gruber MJ, He JP, Koretz D, McLaughlin KA, Petukhova M, Sampson NA, Zaslavsky AM, Merikangas KR: Prevalence, persistence, and sociodemographic correlates of DSM-IV disorders in the national comorbidity survey replication adolescent supplement. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2012; 69: 372-380.
5. Kleber HD, Weiss RD, Anton RF Jr, George TP, Greenfield SF, Kosten TR, O'Brien CP, Rounsaville BJ, Strain EC, Ziedonis DM, Hennessy G, Connery HS, McIntyre JS, Charles SC, Anzia DJ, Cook IA, Finnerty MT, Johnson BR, Nininger JE, Summergrad P, Woods SM, Yager J, Pyles R, Cross CD, Peele R, Shemo JP, Lurie L, Walker RD, Barnovitz MA, Gray SH, Saxena S, Tonnu T, Kunkle R, Albert AB, Fochtmann LJ, Hart C, Regier D: Treatment of patients with substance use disorders, second edition. American Psychiatric Association. Am J Psychiatry 2007; 164: 5-123.
6. Gossop M, Marsden J, Stewart D, Rolfe A: Patterns of drinking and drinking outcomes among drug misusers. 1-year follow-up results. J Subst Abuse Treat 2000; 19: 45-50.
7. Ottomanelli G: Methadone patients and alcohol abuse. J Subst Abuse Treat 1999; 16: 113-121.
8. Srivastava A, Kahan M, Ross S: The effect of methadone maintenance treatment on alcohol consumption: a systematic review. J Subst Abuse Treat 2008; 34: 215-223.
9. Koob GF, Le Moal M: Neurobiology of Addiction. Amsterdam, Academic Press, 2006.
10. Spanagel R: Alcoholism: a systems approach from molecular physiology to addictive behavior. Physiol Rev 2009; 89: 649-705.
11. Spanagel R, Vengeliene V: New pharmacological treatment strategies for relapse prevention. Curr Top Behav Neurosci 2013; 13: 583-609.
12. Dai X, Thavundayil J, Gianoulakis C: Differences in the peripheral levels of beta-endorphin in response to alcohol and stress as a function of alcohol dependence and family history of alcoholism. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2005; 29: 1965-1975.
13. Koob GF, Roberts AJ, Kieffer BL, Heyser CJ, Katner SN, Ciccocioppo R, Weiss F: Animal models of motivation for drinking in rodents with a focus on opioid receptor neuropharmacology. Recent Dev Alcohol 2003; 16: 263-281.
14. Marinelli PW, Bai L, Quirion R, Gianoulakis C: A microdialysis profile of Met-enkephalin release in the rat nucleus accumbens following alcohol administration. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2005; 29: 1821-1828.
15. Marinelli PW, Lam M, Bai L, Quirion R, Gianoulakis C: A microdialysis profile of dynorphin A(1-8) release in the rat nucleus accumbens following alcohol administration. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2006; 30: 982-990.
16. Marinelli PW, Quirion R, Gianoulakis C: An in vivo profile of beta-endorphin release in the arcuate nucleus and nucleus accumbens following exposure to stress or alcohol. Neuroscience 2004; 127: 777-784.
17. Barson JR, Carr AJ, Soun JE, Sobhani NC, Rada P, Leibowitz SF, Hoebel BG: Opioids in the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus stimulate ethanol intake. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2010; 34: 214-222.
18. Herz A: Endogenous opioid systems and alcohol addiction. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1997; 129: 99-111.
19. Hubbell CL, Abelson ML, Burkhardt CA, Herlands SE, Reid LD: Constant infusions of morphine and intakes of sweetened ethanol solution among rats. Alcohol 1988; 5: 409-415.
20. Hubbell CL, Czirr SA, Hunter GA, Beaman CM, LeCann NC, Reid LD: Consumption of ethanol solution is potentiated by morphine and attenuated by naloxone persistently across repeated daily administrations. Alcohol 1986; 3: 39-54.
21. Oswald LM, Wand GS: Opioids and alcoholism. Physiol Behav 2004; 81: 339-358.
22. Goeders NE, Lane JD, Smith JE: Self-administration of methionine enkephalin into the nucleus accumbens. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 1984; 20: 451-455.
23. Jarjour S, Bai L, Gianoulakis C: Effect of acute ethanol administration on the release of opioid peptides from the midbrain including the ventral tegmental area. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2009; 33: 1033-1043.
24. Reid LD: Endogenous opioids and alcohol dependence: opioid alkaloids and the propensity to drink alcoholic beverages. Alcohol 1996; 13: 5-11.
25. Belluzzi JD, Stein L: Enkephalin may mediate euphoria and drive-reduction reward. Nature 1977; 266: 556-558.
26. Gianoulakis C: Endogenous opioids and addiction to alcohol and other drugs of abuse. Curr Top Med Chem 2004; 4: 39-50.
27. Schwantes-An T-HL, Zhang J, Chen L-S, Hartz SM, Culverhouse RC, Chen X, Coon H, Frank J, Kamens HM, Konte B, Kovanen L, Latvala A, et al: Collaborative meta-analysis demonstrates modest association of the OPRM1 variant rs1799971 (A118G) with non-specific liability to substance dependence. Mol Psychiatry, submitted.
28. Rosner S, Hackl-Herrwerth A, Leucht S, Vecchi S, Srisurapanont M, Soyka M: Opioid antagonists for alcohol dependence. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2010; 12:CD001867.
29. Chamorro AJ, Marcos M, Miron-Canelo JA, Pastor I, Gonzalez-Sarmiento R, Laso FJ: Association of micro-opioid receptor (OPRM1) gene polymorphism with response to naltrexone in alcohol dependence: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Addict Biol 2012; 17: 505-512.
30. Anderson P, Gual A, Colom J: Alcohol and Primary Care: Guidelines on Identification and Brief Interventions. Barcelona, Department of Health of the Government of Catalonia, 2005.
31. Soyka M, Bachmund M, Schmidt P, Apelt S: Buprenorphine-naloxone treatment in opioid dependence and risk of liver enzyme elevation-results from a 12-month observational study. Am J Addict 2014; 23: 563-569.
32. Teplin D, Raz B, Daiter J, Varenbut M, Plater-Zyberk C: Screening for alcohol use patterns among methadone maintenance patients. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse 2007; 33: 179-183.
33. Dahl H, Voltaire Carlsson A, Hillgren K, Helander A: Urinary ethyl glucuronide and ethyl sulfate testing for detection of recent drinking in an outpatient treatment program for alcohol and drug dependence. Alcohol Alcohol 2011; 46: 278-282.
34. Wurst FM, Dursteler-MacFarland KM, Auwaerter V, Ergovic S, Thon N, Yegles M, Halter C, Weinmann W, Wiesbeck GA: Assessment of alcohol use among methadone maintenance patients by direct ethanol metabolites and self-reports. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2008; 32: 1552-1557.
35. Wurst FM, Haber PS, Wiesbeck G, Watson B, Wallace C, Whitfield JB, Halter C, Weinmann W, Conigrave KM: Assessment of alcohol consumption among hepatitis C-positive people receiving opioid maintenance treatment using direct ethanol metabolites and self-report: a pilot study. Addict Biol 2008; 13: 416-422.
36. Stenbacka M, Beck O, Leifman A, Romelsjo A, Helander A: Problem drinking in relation to treatment outcome among opiate addicts in methadone maintenance treatment. Drug Alcohol Rev 2007; 26: 55-63.
37. Gsellhofer B, Kuefner H, Vogt M, Weller D: European Addiction Severity. Index-EuropASI. Manual for Training and Execution. Stuttgart, Scheider Verlag, 1999.
38. Babor TF, Grant M: From clinical research to secondary prevention international collaboration in the development of the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT). Alcohol Health Res World 1989; 13: 371-374.
39. Babor TF, Higgins-Biddle JC, Saunders JB, Monteiro MG: AUDIT. The Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test: Guidelines for Use in Primary Health Care, ed 2. Geneva, World Health Organization, 2001.
40. Bennett GA, Edwards S, Bailey J: Helping methadone patients who drink excessively to drink less: short-term outcome of a pilot motivational intervention. J Subst Use 2002; 7: 191-197.
41. Rittmannsberger H, Silberbauer C, Lehner R, Ruschak M: Alcohol consumption during methadone maintenance treatment. Eur Addict Res 2000; 6: 2-7.
42. Sebanjo R, Wolff K, Marshall J: Excessive alcohol consumption is associated with reduced quality of life among methadone patients. Addiction 2006; 102: 257-263.
43. Ryder N, Cullen W, Barry J, Bury G, Keenan E, Smyth BP: Prevalence of problem alcohol use among patients attending primary care for methadone treatment. BMC Fam Pract 2009; 10: 42.
44. Dobler-Mikola A, Hattenschwiler J, Meili D, Beck T, Boni E, Modestin J: Patterns of heroin, cocaine, and alcohol abuse during longterm methadone maintenance treatment. J Subst Abuse Treat 2005; 29: 259-265.
45. Islam MM, Day CA, Conigrave KM, Topp L: Self-perceived problem with alcohol use among opioid substitution treatment clients. Addict Behav 2013; 38: 2018-2021.
46. Backmund M, Schutz CG, Meyer K, Eichenlaub D, Soyka M: Alcohol consumption in heroin users, methadone-substituted and codeine-substituted patients-frequency and correlates of use. Eur Addict Res 2003; 9: 45-50.
47. Hartzler B, Donovan DM, Huang Z: Comparison of opiate-primary treatment seekers with and without alcohol use disorder. J Subst Abuse Treat 2010; 39: 114-123.
48. Hartzler B, Donovan DM, Huang Z: Rates and influences of alcohol use disorder comorbidity among primary stimulant misusing treatment-seekers: Meta-analytic findings across eight NIDA CTN trials. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse 2011; 37: 460-471.
49. White J, Irvine R: Mechanisms of fatal opioid 'overdose': a review. Addiction 1996; 91: 1765-1772.
50. Ostapowicz G, Watson KJ, Locarnini SA, Desmond PV: Role of alcohol in the progression of liver disease caused by hepatitis c virus infection. Hepatology 1998; 27: 1730-1735.
51. Bickel WK, Amass L: The relationship of mean daily blood alcohol levels to admission MAST, clinic absenteeism and depression in alcoholic methadone patients. Drug Alcohol Depend 1993; 32: 113-118.
52. Kreek MJ: Metabolic interactions between opiates and alcohol. Ann NY Acad Sci 1981; 362: 36-49.
53. Joseph H, Appel P: Alcoholism and methadone treatment: consequences for the patient and program. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse 1985; 11: 37-53.
54. Ferri M, Finlayson AJ, Wang L, Martin PR: Predictive factors for relapse in patients on buprenorphine maintenance. Am J Addict 2014; 23: 62-67.
55. Smyth BP, Keenan E, O'Connor JJ: Bloodborne viral infection in Irish injecting drug users. Addiction 1998; 93: 1649-1656.
56. Abraham HD, Degli-Esposti S, Marino L: Seroprevalence of hepatitis C in a sample of middle class substance abusers. J Addict Dis 1999; 18: 77-87.
57. Diaz T, Des Jarlais DC, Vlahov D, Perlis TE, Edwards V, Friedman SR, Rockwell R, Hoover D, Williams IT, Monterroso ER: Factors associated with prevalent hepatitis C: differences among young adult injection drug users in lower and upper Manhattan, New York City. Am J Public Health 2001; 91: 23-30.
58. Murrill CS, Weeks H, Castrucci BC, Weinstock HS, Bell BP, Spruill C, Gwinn M: Agespecific seroprevalence of HIV, hepatitis B virus, and hepatitis C virus infection among injection drug users admitted to drug treatment in 6 US cities. Am J Public Health 2002; 92: 385-387.
59. Novick DM, Kreek MJ: Critical issues in the treatment of hepatitis C virus infection in methadone maintenance patients. Addiction 2008; 103: 905-918.
60. Patrick DM, Tyndall MW, Cornelisse PG, Li K, Sherlock CH, Rekart ML, Strathdee SA, Currie SL, Schechter MT, O'Shaughnessy MV: Incidence of hepatitis C virus infection among injection drug users during an outbreak of HIV infection. CMAJ 2001; 165: 889-895.
61. Rosenblum A, Nuttbrock L, McQuistion HL, Magura S, Joseph H: Hepatitis C and substance use in a sample of homeless people in New York City. J Addict Dis 2001; 20: 15-25.
62. Wittchen HU, Buhringer G, Rehm JT, Soyka M, Trader A, Mark K, Trautmann S: Der Verlauf und Ausgang von Substitutionspatienten unter den aktuellen Bedingungen der deutschen Substitutionsversorgung nach 6 Jahren. Suchtmed 2011; 13: 232-246.
63. Potter JS, Marino EN, Hillhouse MP, Nielsen S, Wiest K, Canamar CP, Martin JA, Ang A, Baker R, Saxon AJ, Ling W: Buprenorphine/naloxone and methadone maintenance treatment outcomes for opioid analgesic, heroin, and combined users: findings from Starting Treatment with Agonist Replacement Therapies (START). J Stud Alcohol Drugs 2013; 74: 605-613.
64. Moitra E, Anderson BJ, Stein MD: Perceived stress and substance use in methadone-maintained smokers. Drug Alcohol Depend 2013; 133: 785-788.
65. Nyamathi A, Shoptaw S, Cohen A, Greengold B, Nyamathi K, Marfisee M, de Castro V, Khalilifard F, George D, Leake B: Effect of motivational interviewing on reduction of alcohol use. Drug Alcohol Depend 2010; 107: 23-30.
66. Wang SC, Tsou HH, Chung RH, Chang YS, Fang CP, Chen CH, Ho IK, Kuo HW, Liu SC, Shih YH, Wu HY, Huang BH, Lin KM, Chen AC, Hsiao CF, Liu YL: The association of genetic polymorphisms in the kappa-opioid receptor 1 gene with body weight, alcohol use, and withdrawal symptoms in patients with methadone maintenance. J Clin Psychopharmacol 2014; 34: 205-211.
67. Hser YI, Anglin D, Powers K: A 24-year follow-up of California narcotics addicts. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1993; 50: 577-584.
68. Bargagli AM, Hickman M, Davoli M, Perucci CA, Schifano P, Buster M, Brugal T, Vicente J: Drug-related mortality and its impact on adult mortality in eight European countries. Eur J Public Health 2006; 16: 198-202.
69. Bjornaas MA, Bekken AS, Ojlert A, Haldorsen T, Jacobsen D, Rostrup M, Ekeberg O: A 20-year prospective study of mortality and causes of death among hospitalized opioid addicts in Oslo. BMC Psychiatry 2008; 8: 8.
70. Termorshuizen F, Krol A, Prins M, van Ameijden EJ: Long-term outcome of chronic drug use: the Amsterdam cohort study among drug users. Am J Epidemiol 2005; 161: 271-279.
71. Degenhardt L, Bucello C, Mathers B, Briegleb C, Ali H, Hickman M, McLaren J: Mortality among regular or dependent users of heroin and other opioids: a systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies. Addiction 2011; 106: 32-51.
72. Darke S, Zador D: Fatal heroin 'overdose': a review. Addiction 1996; 91: 1765-1772.
73. Huang CL, Lee CW: Factors associated with mortality among heroin users after seeking treatment with methadone: a populationbased cohort study in Taiwan. J Subst Abuse Treat 2013; 44: 295-300.
74. Degenhardt L, Larney S, Randall D, Burns L, Hall W: Causes of death in a cohort treated for opioid dependence between 1985 and 2005. Addiction 2014; 109: 90-99.
75. Shand FL, Degenhardt L, Slade T, Nelson EC: Sex differences amongst dependent heroin users: histories, clinical characteristics and predictors of other substance dependence. Addict Behav 2011; 36: 27-36.
76. Veldhuizen S, Callaghan RC: Cause-specific mortality among people previously hospitalized with opioid-related conditions: a retrospective cohort study. Ann Epidemiol 2014; 24: 620-624.
77. Berglund M, Thelander S, Jonsson E: Treating Alcohol and Drug Abuse-An Evidence Based Review. Weinheim, Wiley-VCH, 2003.
78. Amato L, Davoli M, Perucci CA, Ferri M, Faggiano F, Mattick RP: An overview of systematic reviews of the effectiveness of opiate maintenance therapies: available evidence to inform clinical practice and research. J Subst Abuse Treat 2005; 28: 321-329.
79. Bukten A, Skurtveit S, Gossop M, Waal H, Stangeland P, Havnes I, Clausen T: Engagement with opioid maintenance treatment and reductions in crime: a longitudinal national cohort study. Addiction 2012; 107: 393-399.
80. Connock M, Juarez-Garcia A, Jowett S, Frew E, Liu Z, Taylor RJ, Fry-Smith A, Day E, Lintzeris N, Roberts T, Burls A, Taylor RS: Methadone and buprenorphine for the management of opioid dependence: a systematic review and economic evaluation. Health Technol Assess 2007; 11: 1-171, iii-iv.
81. Maremmani I, Gerra G: Buprenorphinebased regimens and methadone for the medical management of opioid dependence: selecting the appropriate drug for treatment. Am J Addict 2010; 19: 557-568.
82. Mattick RP, Breen C, Kimber J, Davoli M: Methadone maintenance therapy versus no opioid replacement therapy for opioid dependence. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2009; 3: CD002209.
83. Mattick RP, Kimber J, Breen C, Davoli M: Buprenorphine maintenance versus placebo or methadone maintenance for opioid dependence. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2008; 2: CD002207.
84. Soyka M, Zingg C, Koller G, Kuefner H: Retention rate and substance use in methadone and buprenorphine maintenance therapy and predictors of outcome: results from a randomized study. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 2008; 11: 641-653.
85. Orman JS, Keating GM: Buprenorphine/naloxone: a review of its use in the treatment of opioid dependence. Drugs 2009; 69: 577-607.
86. Kakko J, Svanborg KD, Kreek MJ, Heilig M: 1-year retention and social function after buprenorphine-assisted relapse prevention treatment for heroin dependence in Sweden: a randomised, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2003; 361: 662-668.
87. Kamien JB, Branstetter SA, Amass L: Buprenorphine-naloxone versus methadone maintenance therapy: a randomised doubleblind trial with opioid-dependent patients. Heroin Addict Relat Clin Probl 2008; 10: 5-18.
88. National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence: Drug Misuse: Opioid Detoxification. London, NICE, 2007.
89. New South Wales Department of Health: Opioid Treatment Program: Clinical Guidelines for Methadone and Buprenorphine Treatment. Sydney, NSW Government, 2006.
90. Soyka M, Kranzler HR, van den Brink W, Krystal J, Moller HJ, Kasper S: The World Federation of Societies of Biological Psychiatry (WFSBP) guidelines for the biological treatment of substance use and related disorders. Part 2: opioid dependence. World J Biol Psychiatry 2011; 12: 160-187.
91. Mammen K, Bell J: The clinical efficacy and abuse potential of combination buprenorphine-naloxone in the treatment of opioid dependence. Expert Opin Pharmacother 2009; 10: 2537-2544.
92. Fairbank JA, Dunteman GH, Condelli WS: Do methadone patients substitute other drugs for heroin? Predicting substance use at 1-year follow-up. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse 1993; 19: 465-474.
93. Gossop M, Marsden J, Stewart D, Treacy S: Change and stability of change after treatment of drug misuse: 2-year outcomes from the National Treatment Outcome Research Study (UK). Addict Behav 2002; 27: 155-166.
94. Caputo F, Addolorato G, Domenicali M, Mosti A, Viaggi M, Trevisani F, Gasbarrini G, Bernardi M, Stefanini GF: Short-term methadone administration reduces alcohol consumption in non-alcoholic heroin addicts. Alcohol Alcohol 2002; 37: 164-168.
95. Hser YI, Anglin MD, Powers K: Longitudinal patterns of alcohol use by narcotics addicts. Recent Dev Alcohol 1990; 8: 145-171.
96. Anglin MD, Almog IJ, Fisher DG, Peters KR: Alcohol use by heroin addicts: evidence for an inverse relationship. A study of methadone maintenance and drug-free treatment samples. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse 1989; 15: 191-207.
97. Schifano F, Martinotti G, Cunniff A, Reissner V, Scherbaum N, Ghodse H: Impact of an 18-month, NHS-based, treatment exposure for heroin dependence: results from the London Area Treat 2000 study. Am J Addict 2012; 21: 268-273.
98. Fishman MJ, Wu LT, Woody GE: Buprenorphine for prescription opioid addiction in a patient with depression and alcohol dependence. Am J Psychiatry 2011; 168: 675-679.
99. Haasen C, Eiroa-Orosa FJ, Verthein U, Soyka M, Dilg C, Schäfer I, Reimer J: Effects of heroin-assisted treatment on alcohol consumption: findings of the German randomized controlled trial. Alcohol 2009; 43: 259-264.
100. Wittchen HU, Buhringer G, Rehm JT, Klotsche J: Die Stabilität der 6-Jahres-Langzeitbefunde in Premos: Ein Vergleich mit den 7-Jahresdaten ein Jahr später. Suchtmed 2011; 13: 269-271.
101. Nava F, Manzato E, Leonardi C, Lucchini A: Opioid maintenance therapy suppresses alcohol intake in heroin addicts with alcohol dependence: preliminary results of an open randomized study. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2008; 32: 1867-1872.
102. Center for Substance Abuse Treatment (US): Clinical Guidelines for the Use of Buprenorphine in the Treatment of Opioid Addiction. Treatment Improvement Protocol (TIP) series 40. DHHS publication No. (SMA) 04-3939. Rockville, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 2004.
103. Arias AJ, Kranzler HR: Treatment of co-occurring alcohol and other drug use disorders. Alcohol Res Health 2008; 31: 155-167.
104. Bickel WK, Marion I, Lowinson JH: The treatment of alcoholic methadone patients: a review. J Subst Abuse Treat 1987; 4: 15-19.
105. Klimas J, Field CA, Cullen W, O'Gorman CS, Glynn LG, Keenan E, Saunders J, Bury G, Dunne C: Psychosocial interventions to reduce alcohol consumption in concurrent problem alcohol and illicit drug users: Cochrane review. Syst Rev 2013; 2: 3.
106. Klimas J, Field CA, Cullen W, O'Gorman CS, Glynn LG, Keenan E, Saunders J, Bury G, Dunne C: Psychosocial interventions to reduce alcohol consumption in concurrent problem alcohol and illicit drug users. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2012; 11: CD009269.
107. Carroll KM, Nich C, Ball SA, McCance E, Rounsavile BJ: Treatment of cocaine and alcohol dependence with psychotherapy and disulfiram. Addiction 1998; 93: 713-727.
108. Feldman N, Chatton A, Khan R, Khazaal Y, Zullino D: Alcohol-related brief intervention in patients treated for opiate or cocaine dependence: a randomized controlled study. Subst Abuse Treat Prev Policy 2011; 6: 22.
109. Stein MD, Charuvastra A, Maksad J, Anderson BJ: A randomized trial of a brief alcohol intervention for needle exchangers (BRAINE). Addiction 2002; 97: 691-700.
110. Klimas J, Anderson R, Bourke M, Bury G, Field CA, Kaner E, Keane R, Keenan E, Meagher D, Murphy B, O'Gorman CS, O'Toole TP, Saunders J, Smyth BP, Dunne C, Cullen W: Psychosocial interventions for alcohol use among problem drug users: protocol for a feasibility study in primary care. JMIR Res Protoc 2013; 2: e26.
111. Darker CD, Sweeney BP, El Hassan HO, Smyth BP, Ivers JH, Barry JM: Brief interventions are effective in reducing alcohol consumption in opiate-dependent methadone-maintained patients: results from an implementation study. Drug Alcohol Rev 2012; 31: 348-356.
112. Babor TF, Higgins-Biddle JC: Brief intervention for hazardous and harmful drinking. A manual for use in primary care. Geneva, World Health Organization, 2001.
113. Soyka M: Nalmefene for the treatment of alcohol dependence: a current update. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 2014; 17: 675-684.
114. Rösner S, Hackl-Herrwerth A, Leucht S, Lehert P, Vecchi S, Soyka M: Acamprosate for alcohol dependence. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2010; 9: CD004332.
115. Carroll KM, Nich C, Shi JM, Eagan D, Ball SA: Efficacy of disulfiram and twelve step facilitation in cocaine-dependent individuals maintained on methadone: a randomized placebo-controlled trial. Drug Alcohol Depend 2012; 126: 224-231.
116. Jorgensen CH, Pedersen B, Tonnesen H: The efficacy of disulfiram for the treatment of alcohol use disorder. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2011; 35: 1749-1758.
117. Oliveto A, Poling J, Mancino MJ, Feldman Z, Cubells JF, Pruzinsky R, Gonsai K, Cargile C, Sofuoglu M, Chopra MP, Gonzalez-Haddad G, Carroll KM, Kosten TR: Randomized, double blind, placebo-controlled trial of disulfiram for the treatment of cocaine dependence in methadone-stabilized patients. Drug Alcohol Depend 2011; 113: 184-191.
118. Schottenfeld RS, Chawarski MC, Cubells JF, George TP, Lappalainen J, Kosten TR: Randomized clinical trial of disulfiram for cocaine dependence or abuse during buprenorphine treatment. Drug Alcohol Depend 2014; 136: 36-42.
119. Atkinson TS, Sanders N, Mancino M, Oliveto A: Effects of disulfiram on QTc interval in non-opioid-dependent and methadonetreated cocaine-dependent patients. J Addict Med 2013; 7: 243-248.
120. Berson A, Fau D, Fornacciari R, Degove-Goddard P, Sutton A, Descatoire V, Haouzi D, Letteron P, Moreau A, Feldmann G, Pessayre D: Mechanisms for experimental buprenorphine hepatotoxicity: major role of mitochondrial dysfunction versus metabolic activation. J Hepatol 2001; 34: 261-269.
121. Berson A, Gervais A, Cazals D, Boyer N, Durand F, Bernuau J, Marcellin P, Degott C, Valla D, Pessayre D: Hepatitis after intravenous buprenorphine misuse in heroin addicts. J Hepatol 2001; 34: 346-350.
122. Bruce RD, Altice FL: Case series on the safe use of buprenorphine/naloxone in individuals with acute hepatitis c infection and abnormal hepatic liver transaminases. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse 2007; 33: 869-874.
123. Houdret N, Asnar V, Szostak-Talbodec N, Leteurtre E, Humbert L, Lecomte-Houcke M, Lhermitte M, Paris JC: Hepatonephritis and massive ingestion of buprenorphine (in French). Acta Clin Belg Suppl 1999; 1: 29-31.
124. Petry NM, Bickel WK, Piasecki D, Marsch LA, Badger GJ: Elevated liver enzyme levels in opioid-dependent patients with hepatitis treated with buprenorphine. Am J Addict 2000; 9: 265-269.
125. Peyriere H, Tatem L, Bories C, Pageaux GP, Blayac JP, Larrey D: Hepatitis after intravenous injection of sublingual buprenorphine in acute hepatitis C carriers: report of two cases of disappearance of viral replication after acute hepatitis. Ann Pharmacother 2009; 43: 973-977.
126. Zuin M, Giorgini A, Selmi C, Battezzati PM, Cocchi CA, Crosignani A, Benetti A, Invernizzi P, Podda M: Acute liver and renal failure during treatment with buprenorphine at therapeutic dose. Dig Liver Dis 2009; 41:e8-e10.
127. Hervè S, Riachi G, Noblet C, Guillement N, Tanasescu S, Goria O, Thuillez C, Tranvouez JL, Ducrotte P, Lerebours E: Acute hepatitis due to buprenorphine administration. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2004; 16: 1033-1037.
128. Bogenschutz MP, Abbott PJ, Kushner R, Tonigan JS, Woody GE: Effects of buprenorphine and hepatitis C on liver enzymes in adolescents and young adults. J Addict Med 2010; 4: 211-216.
129. Saxon AJ, Ling W, Hillhouse M, Thomas C, Hasson A, Ang A, Doraimani G, Tasissa G, Lokhnygina Y, Leimberger J, Bruce RD, Mc-Carthy J, Wiest K, McLaughlin P, Bilangi R, Cohen A, Woody G, Jacobs P: Buprenorphine/naloxone and methadone effects on laboratory indices of liver health: a randomized trial. Drug Alcohol Depend 2013; 128: 71-76.
130. Lucas GM, Young A, Donnell D, Richardson P, Aramrattana A, Shao Y, Ruan Y, Liu W, Fu L, Ma J, Celentano DD, Metzger D, Jackson JB, Burns D: Hepatotoxicity in a 52-week randomized trial of short-term versus long-term treatment with buprenorphine/naloxone in HIV-negative injection opioid users in China and Thailand. Drug Alcohol Depend 2014; 142: 139-145.
131. Amato L, Minozzi S, Davoli M, Vecchi S: Psychosocial combined with agonist maintenance treatments versus agonist maintenance treatments alone for treatment of opioid dependence. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2011; 10: CD004147.
132. Dutra L, Stathopoulou G, Basden SL, Leyro TM, Powers MB, Otto MW: A meta-analytic review of psychosocial interventions for substance use disorders. Am J Psychiatry 2008; 165: 179-187.
133. Nyamathi A, Cohen A, Marfisee M, Shoptaw S, Greengold B, de Castro V, George D, Leake B: Correlates of alcohol use among methadone-maintained adults. Drug Alcohol Depend 2009; 101: 124-127.