Physical Activity Versus Cardiorespiratory Fitness: Two (Partly) Distinct Components of Cardiovascular Health?

Progress in Cardiovascular Diseases

Volumn 57, Issue 4, 2015, Pages 324-329

  DeFina, Laura F ^a   Haskell, William L ^b   Willis, Benjamin L ^a   Barlow, Carolyn E ^a   Finley, Carrie E ^a   Levine, Benjamin D ^c   Cooper, Kenneth H ^d  

^a The Cooper Institute ^*  (United States)

^b STANFORD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS SOUTHWESTERN MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

^d Cooper Clinic ^*  (United States)

Author keywords

Cardiorespiratory fitness; Cardiovascular disease prevention; Physical activity

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; CARDIORESPIRATORY FITNESS; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CARDIOVASCULAR MORTALITY; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; CLINICAL PRACTICE; CLINICAL RESEARCH; ENDURANCE TRAINING; EXERCISE INTENSITY; HEALTH CARE DELIVERY; HEALTH CARE UTILIZATION; HUMAN; MORBIDITY; NONHUMAN; PHYSICAL ACTIVITY; RISK BENEFIT ANALYSIS; TREADMILL EXERCISE; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES; EXERCISE; FITNESS; HEALTH STATUS; LIFESTYLE; MOTOR ACTIVITY; PHYSIOLOGY; PRIMARY PREVENTION; PROCEDURES; PSYCHOLOGY; PUBLIC HEALTH; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK FACTOR; UTILIZATION;

CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES; EXERCISE; HEALTH STATUS; HUMANS; LIFE STYLE; MOTOR ACTIVITY; PHYSICAL FITNESS; PRIMARY PREVENTION; PUBLIC HEALTH; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK FACTORS;

EID: 84920283849     PISSN: 00330620     EISSN: 18731740     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.pcad.2014.09.008     Document Type: Article

References (65)

1. Physical Activity Guidelines Advisory Committee Physical Activity Guidelines Advisory Committee Report, 2008 2008.
2. Fletcher G.F., Blair S.N., Blumenthal J., Caspersen C., Chaitman B., Epstein S., et al. Position statement - statement on exercise - benefits and recommendations for physical activity programs for all Americans - a statement for health professionals by the committee on Exercise and Cardiac Rehabilitation of the Council on Clinical Cardiology, American Heart Association. Circulation 1992, 86:340-344.
3. Lloyd-Jones D.M., Hong Y., Labarthe D., Mozaffarian D., Appel L.J., Van H.L., et al. Defining and setting national goals for cardiovascular health promotion and disease reduction: the American Heart Association's strategic Impact Goal through 2020 and beyond. Circulation 2010, 121:586-613.
4. Haskell W.L., Lee I.M., Pate R.R., Powell K.E., Blair S.N., Franklin B.A., et al. Physical activity and public health: updated recommendation for adults from the American College of Sports Medicine and the American Heart Association. Circulation 2007, 116:1081-1093.
5. Blair S.N., Kohl H.W., Paffenbarger R.S., Clark D.G., Cooper K.H., Gibbons L.W. Physical fitness and all-cause mortality: a prospective study of healthy men and women. JAMA 1989, 262:2395-2401.
6. Franklin B.A., McCullough P.A. Cardiorespiratory fitness: an independent and additive marker of risk stratification and health outcomes. Mayo Clin Proc 2009, 84:776-779.
7. Kaminsky L.A., Arena R., Beckie T.M., Brubaker P.H., Church T.S., Forman D.E., et al. The importance of cardiorespiratory fitness in the United States: the need for a national registry: a policy statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation 2013, 127:652-662.
8. Morris J.N., Heady J.A., Raffle P.A., Roberts C.G., Parks J.W. Coronary heart-disease and physical activity of work. Lancet 1953, 265:1053-1057.
9. Li J., Siegrist J. Physical activity and risk of cardiovascular disease-a meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2012, 9:391-407.
10. Lee I.M., Shiroma E.J., Lobelo F., Puska P., Blair S.N., Katzmarzyk P.T. Effect of physical inactivity on major non-communicable diseases worldwide: an analysis of burden of disease and life expectancy. Lancet 2012, 380:219-229.
11. Williams P.T. Dose-response relationship of physical activity to premature and total all-cause and cardiovascular disease mortality in walkers. PLoS One 2013, 8:e78777.
12. He D., Xi B., Xue J., Huai P., Zhang M., Li J. Association between leisure time physical activity and metabolic syndrome: a meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Endocrine 2014, 46:231-240.
13. Hamer M., Venuraju S.M., Lahiri A., Rossi A., Steptoe A. Objectively assessed physical activity, sedentary time, and coronary artery calcification in healthy older adults. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2012, 32:500-505.
14. Bertoni A.G., Whitt-Glover M.C., Chung H., Le K.Y., Barr R.G., Mahesh M., et al. The association between physical activity and subclinical atherosclerosis: the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis. Am J Epidemiol 2009, 169:444-454.
15. Ofman P., Khawaja O., Rahilly-Tierney C.R., Peralta A., Hoffmeister P., Reynolds M.R., et al. Regular physical activity and risk of atrial fibrillation: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol 2013, 6:252-256.
16. Ingle L., Carroll S., Stamatakis E., Hamer M. Benefit of adding lifestyle-related risk factors for prediction of cardiovascular death among cardiac patients. Int J Cardiol 2013, 163:196-200.
17. Hill A., Lupton H. Muscular exercise, lactic acid, and the supply and utilization of oxygen. Q J Med 1923, 16:135-171.
18. Levine B.D. VO2max: what do we know, and what do we still need to know?. J Physiol 2008, 586:25-34.
19. Barlow C.E., LaMonte M.J., FitzGerald S.J., Kampert J.B., Perrin J.L., Blair S.N. Cardiorespiratory fitness is an independent predictor of hypertension incidence among initially normotensive healthy women. Am J Epidemiol 2006, 163:142-150.
20. Kodama S., Saito K., Tanaka S., Maki M., Yachi Y., Asumi M., et al. Cardiorespiratory fitness as a quantitative predictor of all-cause mortality and cardiovascular events in healthy men and women: a meta-analysis. JAMA 2009, 301:2024-2035.
21. Williams P.T. Physical fitness and activity as separate heart disease risk factors: a meta-analysis. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2001, 33:754-761.
22. Mora S., Redberg R.F., Cui Y., Whiteman M.K., Flaws J.A., Sharrett A.R., et al. Ability of exercise testing to predict cardiovascular and all-cause death in asymptomatic women: a 20-year follow-up of the lipid research clinics prevalence study. JAMA 2003, 290:1600-1607.
23. Kokkinos P., Myers J., Kokkinos J.P., Pittaras A., Narayan P., Manolis A., et al. Exercise capacity and mortality in black and white men. Circulation 2008, 117:614-622.
24. Berry J.D., Pandey A., Gao A., Leonard D., Farzaneh-Far R., Ayers C., et al. Physical fitness and risk for heart failure and coronary artery disease. Circ Heart Fail 2013, 6:627-634.
25. Willis B.L., Gao A., Leonard D., Defina L.F., Berry J.D. Midlife fitness and the development of chronic conditions in later life. Arch Intern Med 2012, 1333-1340.
26. Katzmarzyk P.T., Church T.S., Blair S.N. Cardiorespiratory fitness attenuates the effects of the metabolic syndrome on all-cause and cardiovascular disease mortality in men. Arch Intern Med 2004, 164:1092-1097.
27. Lee C.D., Jacobs D.R., Hankinson A., Iribarren C., Sidney S. Cardiorespiratory fitness and coronary artery calcification in young adults: the CARDIA Study. Atherosclerosis 2009, 203:263-268.
28. DeFina L., Radford N., Leonard D., Gibbons L., Khera A. Cardiorespiratory fitness and coronary artery calcification in women. Atherosclerosis 2014, 233:648-653.
29. Grundvold I., Skretteberg P.T., Liestol K., Gjesdal K., Erikssen G., Kjeldsen S.E., et al. Importance of physical fitness on predictive effect of body mass index and weight gain on incident atrial fibrillation in healthy middle-age men. Am J Cardiol 2012, 110:425-432.
30. Gupta S., Rohatgi A., Ayers C.R., Willis B.L., Haskell W.L., Khera A., et al. Cardiorespiratory fitness and classification of risk of cardiovascular disease mortality. Circulation 2011, 123:1377-1383.
31. Berry J.D., Willis B., Gupta S., Barlow C.E., Lakoski S.G., Khera A., et al. Lifetime risks for cardiovascular disease mortality by cardiorespiratory fitness levels measured at ages 45, 55, and 65years in men. The Cooper Center Longitudinal Study. J Am Coll Cardiol 2011, 57:1604-1610.
32. Blair S.N., Cheng Y., Holder J.S. Is physical activity or physical fitness more important in defining health benefits?. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2001, 33:S379-S399.
33. Swift D.L., Lavie C.J., Johannsen N.M., Arena R., Earnest C.P., O'Keefe J.H., et al. Physical activity, cardiorespiratory fitness, and exercise training in primary and secondary coronary prevention. Circ J 2013, 77:281-292.
34. Blair S.N., Jackson A.S. Physical fitness and activity as separate heart disease risk factors: a meta-analysis. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2001, 33:762-764.
35. Myers J., Kaykha A., George S., Abella J., Zaheer N., Lear S., et al. Fitness versus physical activity patterns in predicting mortality in men. Am J Med 2004, 117:912-918.
36. Carrick-Ranson G., Hastings J.L., Bhella P.S., Fujimoto N., Shibata S., Palmer M.D., et al. The effect of lifelong exercise dose on cardiovascular function during exercise. J Appl Physiol 2014, 116:736-745.
37. Skinner J.S., Wilmore K.M., Krasnoff J.B., Jaskolska A., Gagnon J., Province M.A., et al. Adaptation to a standardized training program and changes in fitness in a large, herogeneous population: The Heritage Family Study. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2000, 32:157-161.
38. Bouchard C., Sarzynski M.A., Rice T.K., Kraus W.E., Church T.S., Sung Y.J., et al. Genomic predictors of the maximal O(2) uptake response to standardized exercise training programs. J Appl Physiol 2011, 110:1160-1170.
39. Saltin B., Blomqvist G., Mitchell J.H., Johnson R.L., Wildenthal K., Chapman C.B. Response to exercise after bed rest and after training. Circulation 1968, 38:VII1-VII78.
40. Suminski R.R., Wier L.T., Poston W., Arenare B., Randles A., Jackson A.S. The effect of habitual smoking on measured and predicted VO2(max). J Phys Act Health 2009, 6:667-673.
41. Bouchard C., An P., Rice T., Skinner J.S., Wilmore J.H., Gagnon J., et al. Familial aggregation of VO(2max) response to exercise training: results from the HERITAGE Family Study. J Appl Physiol 1999, 87:1003-1008.
42. Khera A., Mitchell J.H., Levine B.D. Cardiovascular medicine 2014, 2631-2648. Churchill Livingstone, Philadelphia. J.T. Willerson, J.N. Cohn, H.J.J. Wellens, D.R. Holmes (Eds.).
43. Myers J., Prakash M., Froelicher V., Do D., Partington S., Atwood J.E. Exercise capacity and mortality among men referred for exercise testing. N Engl J Med 2002, 346:793-801.
44. Blair S.N., Kohl H.W., Barlow C.E., Paffenbarger R.S., Gibbons L.W., Macera C.A. Changes in physical fitness and all-cause mortality: a prospective study of healthy and unhealthy men. JAMA 1995, 273:1093-1098.
45. Fox S.M., Naughton J.P., Haskell W.L. Physical activity and the prevention of coronary heart disease. Ann Clin Res 1971, 3:404-432.
46. Pereira M.A., FitzGerald S.J., Gregg E.W., Joswiak M.L., Ryan W.J., Suminski R.R., et al. A collection of physical activity questionnaires for health-related research. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1997, 29:S1-S205.
47. Bonnefoy M., Normand S., Pachiaudi C., Lacour J.R., Laville M., Kostka T. Simultaneous validation of ten physical activity questionnaires in older men: a doubly labeled water study. J Am Geriatr Soc 2001, 49:28-35.
48. Ainsworth B.E., Richardson M.T., Jacobs D.R., Leon A.S., Sternfeld B. Accuracy of recall of occupational physical activity by questionnaire. J Clin Epidemiol 1999, 52:219-227.
49. Buman M.P., Hekler E.B., Haskell W.L., Pruitt L., Conway T.L., Cain K.L., et al. Objective light-intensity physical activity associations with rated health in older adults. Am J Epidemiol 2010, 172:1155-1165.
50. Matthews C.E., Hagstromer M., Pober D.M., Bowles H.R. Best practices for using physical activity monitors in population-based research. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2012, 44:S68-S76.
51. Celis-Morales C.A., Perez-Bravo F., Ibanez L., Salas C., Bailey M.E., Gill J.M. Objective vs. self-reported physical activity and sedentary time: effects of measurement method on relationships with risk biomarkers. PLoS One 2012, 7:e36345.
52. American College of Sports Medicine ACSM's guidelines for exercise testing and prescription 2013, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, PA.
53. Pollock M.L., Bohannon R.L., Cooper K.H., Ayres J.J., Ward A., White S.R., et al. A comparative analysis of four protocols for maximal treadmill stress testing. Am Heart J 1976, 92:39-46.
54. Pollock M.L., Foster C., Schmidt D., Hellman C., Linnerud A.C., Ward A. Comparative analysis of physiologic responses to three different maximal graded exercise test protocols in healthy women. Am Heart J 1982, 103:363-373.
55. Lakoski S.G., Barlow C.E., Farrell S.W., Berry J.D., Morrow J.R., Haskell W.L. Impact of body mass index, physical activity, and other clinical factors on cardiorespiratory fitness (from the Cooper Center Longitudinal Study). Am J Cardiol 2011, 108:34-39.
56. Cooper K.H. A means of assessing maximal oxygen intake. Correlation between field and treadmill testing. JAMA 1968, 203:201-204.
57. Kline G.M., Porcari J.P., Hintermeister R., Freedson P.S., Ward A., McCarron R.F., et al. Estimation of VO2max from a one-mile track walk, gender, age, and body weight. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1987, 19:253-259.
58. Nes B.M., Vatten L.J., Nauman J., Janszky I., Wisloff U. A simple nonexercise model of cardiorespiratory fitness predicts long-term mortality. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2014, 46:1159-1165.
59. Artero E.G., Jackson A.S., Sui X., Lee D.C., O'Connor D.P., Lavie C.J., et al. Longitudinal algorithms to estimate cardiorespiratory fitness: associations with nonfatal cardiovascular disease and disease-specific mortality. J Am Coll Cardiol 2014, 63:2289-2296.
60. Strath S.J., Kaminsky L.A., Ainsworth B.E., Ekelund U., Freedson P.S., Gary R.A., et al. Guide to the assessment of physical activity: clinical and research applications: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation 2013, 128:2259-2279.
61. Kulinski J.P., Khera A., Ayers C.R., Das S.R., de Lemos J.A., Blair S.N., et al. Association between cardiorespiratory fitness and accelerometer-derived physical activity and sedentary time in the general population. Mayo Clin Proc 2014, 89:1063-1071.
62. Pahor M., Blair S.N., Espeland M., Fielding R., Gill T.M., Guralnik J.M., et al. Effects of a physical activity intervention on measures of physical performance: Results of the Lifestyle Interventions and Independence For Elders Pilot (LIFE-P) study. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2006, 61:1157-1165.
63. Ho J.S., FitzGerald S.J., Barlow C.E., Cannaday J.J., Kohl H.W., Haskell W.L., et al. Risk of mortality increases with increasing number of abnormal non-ST parameters recorded during exercise testing. Eur J Cardiovasc Prev Rehabil 2010, 17:462-468.
64. Balady G.J., Arena R., Sietsema K., Myers J., Coke L., Fletcher G.F., et al. Clinician's Guide to cardiopulmonary exercise testing in adults: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation 2010, 122:191-225.
65. Chou R., Arora B., Dana T., Fu R., Walker M., Humphrey L. Screening asymptomatic adults with resting or exercise electrocardiography: a review of the evidence for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Ann Intern Med 2011, 155:375-385.