Prospects and challenges for sustainable sanitation in developed nations: A critical review

Environmental Reviews

Volumn 22, Issue 4, 2014, Pages 346-363

  Brands, Edwin ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA   (United States)

Author keywords

Developed nations; Sanitation; Source separation; Sustainability

Indexed keywords

BEHAVIORAL RESEARCH; COSTS; EFFLUENTS; ENERGY UTILIZATION; GAS EMISSIONS; GREENHOUSE GASES; KNOWLEDGE BASED SYSTEMS; NUTRIENTS; PETROLEUM PROSPECTING; RIVER POLLUTION; SEWAGE; SLUDGE DISPOSAL; SOCIAL SCIENCES COMPUTING; SOURCE SEPARATION; SURFACE WATERS; SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT; WASTEWATER DISPOSAL; WASTEWATER RECLAMATION;

AGEING INFRASTRUCTURES; BEHAVIORAL PSYCHOLOGIES; DEVELOPED NATIONS; ECOLOGICAL SANITATION; INCREMENTAL IMPROVEMENTS; INDUSTRIAL EFFLUENT; INFRASTRUCTURE COSTS; LONG-TERM SUSTAINABILITY;

SANITATION;

EID: 84912038348     PISSN: 11818700     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1139/er-2013-0082     Document Type: Review

References (191)

1. Alloway B.J. Jackson A.P. 1991. The behavior of heavy metals in sewage sludge-amended soils. Sci. Total Environ. 100: 151-176. 10.1016/0048-9697(91)90377-Q. 2063180.
2. Anand C. Apul D.S. 2011. Economic and environmental analysis of standard, high efficiency, rainwater flushed, and composting toilets. J. Environ. Manage. 92 (3): 419-428. 10.1016/j.jenvman.2010.08.005. 21056531.
3. Apan-Idiok A.U. Udo I.A. Braide E.I. 2012. The use of human urine as an organic fertilizer in the production of okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) in South Eastern Nigeria. Resour., Conserv. Recycl. 62: 14-20. 10.1016/j.resconrec.2012.02.003.
4. Appels L. Lauwers J. Degrève J. Helsen L. Lievens B. Willems K. Van Impe J. Dewil R. 2011. Anaerobic digestion in global bio-energy production: potential and research challenges. Renewable Sustainable Energy Rev. 15 (9): 4295-4301. 10.1016/j.rser.2011.07.121.
5. Arora M. Kiran B. Rani S. Rani A. Kaur B. Mittal N. 2008. Heavy metal accumulation in vegetables irrigated with water from different sources. Food Chem. 111: 811-815. 10.1016/j.foodchem.2008.04.049.
6. Ashley K. Cordell D. Mavinic D. 2011. A brief history of phosphorus: from the philosopher's stone to nutrient recovery and reuse. Chemosphere, 84 (6): 737-746. 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2011.03.001. 21481914.
7. Austin L.M. Cloete T.E. 2008. Safety aspects of handling and using fecal material from urine-diversion toilets-a field investigation. Water Environ. Res. 80 (4): 308-315. 10.2175/106143007X221021. 18536481.
8. Baird G.M. 2011. The silver bullet for aging water distribution systems? J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 103 (6): 14-23.
9. Barles S. 2007. Feeding the city: food consumption and flow of nitrogen, Paris, 1801-1914. Sci. Total Environ. 375 (1-3): 48-58. 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2006.12.003. 17270249.
10. Basile T. Petrella M. Petrella M. Boghetich G. Petruzzelli V. Colasuonno S. Petruzzelli D. 2011. Review of endocrine-disrupting-compound removal technologies in water and wastewater treatment plants: an EU perspective. Industrial Engineering and Chemical Research, 50 (14): 8389-8401. 10.1021/ie101919v.
11. Beck, B.M. 2013. Why question the prevailing paradigm of wastewater management? In Source separation and decentralization for wastewater management. Edited by T.A. Larsen, K. Udert, and J. Lienert. IWA Publishing, London, UK. pp. 465-473.
12. Bengtsson M. Tillman A.-M. 2004. Actors and interpretations in an environmental controversy: the Swedish debate on sewage sludge use in agriculture. Resour., Conserv. Recycl. 42 (1): 65-82. 10.1016/j.resconrec.2004.02.004.
13. Bitton, G. 2011. Wastewater Microbiology, 4th Ed. Wiley-Blackwell, Hoboken, NJ. 804 p.
14. Bixio D. Thoeye C. De Koning J. Joksimovic D. Savic D. Wintgens T. Melin T. 2006. Wastewater reuse in Europe. Desalination, 187 (1-3): 89-101. 10.1016/j.desal.2005.04.070.
15. Boller, M. 2013. Source control and source separation: the Swiss experience. In Source separation and decentralization for wastewater management. Edited by T.A. Larsen, K. Udert, and J. Lienert. IWA Publishing, London, UK. pp. 439-446.
16. Boyle C. Mudd G. Mihelcic J.R. Anastas P. Collins T. Culligan P. Edwards M. Gabe J. Gallagher P. Handy S. Kao J.-J. Krumdieck S. Lyles L.D. Mason I. McDowall R. Pearce A. Riedy C. Russell J. Schnoor J.L. Trotz M. Venables R. Zimmerman J.B. Fuchs V. Miller S. Page S. Breeder-Emery K. 2010. Delivering sustainable infrastructure that supports the urban built environment. Environ. Sci. Technol. 44 (13): 4836-4840. 10.1021/es903749d. 20583825.
17. Bracken P. Wachtier A. Panesar A.R. Lange J. 2006. The road not taken: how traditional excreta and greywater management may point the way to a sustainable future. Water Sci. Technol.: Water Supply, 7 (1): 219-227. 10.2166/ws.2007.025.
18. Brandt E.M.F. de Queiroz F.B. Afonso R.J.C.F. Aquino S.F. Chernicharo C.A.L. 2013. Behaviour of pharmaceuticals and endocrine disrupting chemicals in simplified sewage treatment systems. J. Environ. Manage. 128: 718-726. 10.1016/j.jenvman.2013.06.003. 23850766.
19. Burn S. Maheepala S. Sharma A. 2012. Utilising integrated urban water management to assess the viability of decentralised water solutions. Water Sci. Technol. 66 (1): 113-121. 10.2166/wst.2012.071. 22678207.
20. Butler, D., and Davies, J.W. 2011. Urban Drainage. Spon Press, New York, 619 p.
21. Butler D. Parkinson J. 1997. Towards sustainable urban drainage. Water Sci. Technol. 35 (9): 53-63. 10.1016/S0273-1223(97)00184-4.
22. Chandran A. Pradhan S.K. Heinonen-Tanski H. 2009. Survival of enteric bacteria and coliphage MS2 in pure human urine. J. Appl. Microbiol. 107 (5): 1651-1657. 10.1111/j.1365-2672.2009.04353.x. 19457041.
23. Chen J. Beck M.B. 1997. Towards designing sustainable urban wastewater infrastructures: a screening analysis. Water Sci. Technol. 35 (9): 99-112. 10.1016/S0273-1223(97)00188-1.
24. Childers D.L. Corman J. Edwards M. Elser J.J. 2011. Sustainability challenges of phosphorus and food: Solutions from closing the human phosphorus cycle. BioScience. 61 (2): 117-124. 10.1525/bio.2011.61.2.6.
25. Copeland, C. 2010. Ocean dumping act: a summary of the law. Congressional Research Service Report 7-5700. Available from http://www.gc.noaa.gov/documents/gcil-crs-oda.pdf [accessed 5 November 2013].
26. Cordell D. Rosemarin A. Schröder J.J. Smit A.L. 2011. Towards global phosphorus security: a systems framework for phosphorus recovery and reuse options. Chemosphere, 84 (6): 747-758. 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2011.02.032. 21414650.
27. Corgiat C.A. Templer D.I. 2003. Relation of attitude toward body elimination to parenting style and attitude toward the body. Psychological Reports, 92 (2): 621-626. 10.2466/pr0.2003.92.2.621. 12785652.
28. Corgiat M.D. Cappelletty G.G. Phillips J. Templer D.I. 1986. Body elimination attitude and vocational interests. J. Clin. Psychol. 42 (5): 761-763. 10.1002/1097-4679(198609)42:5<761::AID-JCLP2270420514>3.0.CO;2-T.
29. Cui Y. Zhu Y.-G. Zhai R. Huang Y. Qui Y. Liang J. 2005. Exposure to metal mixtures and human health impacts in a contaminated area in Nanning, China. Environ. Int. 31 (6): 784-790. 10.1016/j.envint.2005.05.025. 15979144.
30. Decrey L. Udert K.M. Tilley E. Pecson B.M. Kohn T. 2011. Fate of the pathogen indicators phage ΦX174 and Ascaris suum eggs during the production of struvite fertilizer from source-separated urine. Water Res. 45 (16): 4960-4972. 10.1016/j.watres.2011.06.042. 21807394.
31. Delleur J.W. 2003. The evolution of urban hydrology: past, present, and future. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, 129 (8): 563-573. 10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9429(2003)129:8(563).
32. Diaz R.J. Rosenberg R. 2008. Spreading dead zones and consequences for marine ecosystems. Science, 321 (5891): 926-929. 10.1126/science.1156401. 18703733.
33. Dolnicar S. Schäfer A.I. 2009. Desalinated versus recycled water: public perceptions and profiles of the accepters. J. Environ. Manage. 90 (2): 888-900. 10.1016/j.jenvman.2008.02.003. 18433981.
34. Drangert J.O. 1998. Fighting the urine blindness to provide more sanitation options. Water SA, 24 (2): 157-164. Available from http://www.wrc.org.za/Knowledge%20Hub%20Documents/Water%20SA%20Journals/Manuscripts/1998/02/WaterSA-1998-02-apr98-p157.pdf [accessed 6 November 2013].
35. Ely L.T. Templer D.I. Spencer D.A. Forward V.E. 2007. The relationship of body elimination attitude to value orientation of nursing professionals. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 16 (2): 71-77.
36. Escher B.I. Pronk W. Suter M.J.F. Maurer M. 2006. Monitoring the removal efficiency of pharmaceuticals and hormones in different treatment processes of source-separated urine with bioassays. Environ. Sci. Technol. 40 (16): 5095-5101. 10.1021/es060598w. 16955913.
37. Escobar, I.C. 2010. Conclusion: a summary of challenges still facing desalination and water reuse. In Sustainability Science and Engineering. Vol. 2. (online) Edited by I.C. Escobar and A.I. Schäfer. Elsevier B.V. pp. 389-397. 10.1016/S1871-2711(09)00214-1.
38. Esrey S.A. 2002. Philosophical, ecological and technical challenges for expanding ecological sanitation into urban areas. Water Sci. Technol. 45 (8): 225-228. 12019825.
39. Esrey, S., Gough, J., Rapaport, D., Sawyer, R., Simpson-Hébert, M., Vargas, J., and Winblad, U. 1998. Ecological sanitation. Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency. Sida S-105-25. Available from http://www.ecosanres.org/pdf-files/Ecological-Sanitation.pdf [accessed 5 November 2013].
40. European Commission. 1991. Council Regulation No. 2092-91. On organic production of agricultural products and indications referring thereto on agricultural products and foodstuffs. Available from http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:1991:198:0001:0015:EN:PDF [accessed 5 November 2013].
41. Eurostat. 2011. Europe in figures-Eurostat yearbook 2011. Available from http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY-OFFPUB/KS-CD-11-001/EN/KS-CD-11-001-EN.PDF [accessed 5 November 2013].
42. Fam D.M. Mitchell C.A. 2012. Sustainable innovation in wastewater management: lessons for nutrient recovery and reuse. Local Environment, 17 (1): 1-12. 10.1080/13549839.2011.627321.
43. Ferrie J.P. Troesken W. 2008. Water and Chicago's mortality transition, 1850-1925. Explorations in Economic History, 45 (1): 1-16. 10.1016/j.eeh.2007.06.001.
44. Fittschen I. Niemeczynowicz J. 1997. Experiences with dry sanitation and greywater treatment in the ecovillage Toarp, Sweden. Water Sci. Technol. 35 (9): 161-170. 10.1016/S0273-1223(95)00194-8.
45. Focazio M.J. Kolpin D.W. Barnes K.K. Furlong E.T. Myer M.T. Zaugg S.D. Barber L.B. Thurman M.E. 2008. A national reconnaissance for pharmaceuticals and other organic wastewater contaminants in the United States-II) Untreated drinking water sources. Sci. Total Environ. 402 (2-3): 201-216. 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2008.02.021. 18433838.
46. Foley J. de Haas D. Hartley K. Lant P. 2010. Comprehensive life cycle inventories of alternative wastewater treatment systems. Water Res. 44 (5): 1654-1666. 10.1016/j.watres.2009.11.031. 20022351.
47. Friedler E. 2004. Quality of individual domestic greywater streams and its implications for on-site treatment and reuse possibilities. Environ. Technol. 25 (9): 997-1008. 10.1080/09593330.2004.9619393. 15515266.
48. Friedler E. 2008. The water saving potential and the socio-economic feasibility of greywater reuse within the urban sector-Israel as a case study. Int. J. Environ. Stud. 65 (1): 57-69. 10.1080/00207230701846697.
49. Friedler E. Lahav O. Jizhaki H. Lahav T. 2006. Study of urban population attitudes towards various wastewater reuse options: Israel as a case study. J. Environ. Manage. 81 (4): 360-370. 10.1016/j.jenvman.2005.11.013. 16574307.
50. Friedler, E., Butler, D., and Alfiya, Y. 2013. Wastewater composition. In Source separation and decentralization for wastewater management. Edited by T.A. Larsen, K. Udert, and J. Lienert. IWA Publishing, London, UK. pp. 241-257.
51. Galloway J.N. Townsend A.R. Erisman J.W. Bekunda M. Cai Z. Freney J.R. Martinelli L.A. Seitzinger S.P. Sutton M.A. 2008. Transformation of the nitrogen cycle: recent trends, questions, and potential solutions. Science, 320 (5878): 889-892. 10.1126/science.1136674. 18487183.
52. Ganrot, Z., Borber, J., and Byden, S. 2009. Energy efficient nutrient recovery from household wastewater using struvite precipitation and zeolite adsorption techniques: a pilot plant study in Sweden. In International Conference on Nutrient Recovery from Wastewater Streams. Edited by K. Ashley, D. Mavinic, and F. Koch. IWA Publishing, London, UK. pp. 511-520.
53. Gardner, T., and Sharma, A. 2013. Development of decentralized systems in Australia. In Source separation and decentralization for wastewater management. Edited by T.A. Larsen, K. Udert, and J. Lienert. IWA Publishing, London, UK. pp. 447-454.
54. Germer J. Addai S. Sauerborn J. 2011. Response of grain sorghum to fertilisation with human urine. Field Crops Research, 122 (3): 234-241. 10.1016/j.fcr.2011.03.017.
55. Grant S.B. Saphores J.-D. Feldman D.L. Hamilton A.J. Fletcher T.D. Cook P.L.M. Stewardson M. Sanders B.F. Levin L.A. Ambrose R.F. Deletic A. Brown R. Jiang S.C. Rosso D. Cooper W.J. Marusic I. 2012. Taking the "waste" out of "wastewater" for human water security and ecosystem sustainability. Science, 337 (6095): 681-686. 10.1126/science.1216852. 22879506.
56. Guest J.S. Skerlos S.J. Barnard J.L. Beck M.B. Daigger G.T. Hilger H. Jackson S.J. Karvazy K. Kelly L. Macpherson L. Mihelcic J.R. Pramanik A. Raskin L. Van Loosdrecht M.C.M. Yeh D. Love N.G. 2009. A new planning and design paradigm to achieve sustainable resource recovery from wastewater. Environ. Sci. Technol. 43 (16): 6126-6130. 10.1021/es9010515. 19746702.
57. Hanaeus J. Hellström D. Johansson E. 1997. A study of a urine separation system in an ecological village in northern Sweden. Water Sci. Technol. 35 (9): 153-160. 10.1016/S0273-1223(97)00193-5.
58. Hartley T.W. 2006. Public perception and participation in water reuse. Desalination, 187 (1-3): 115-126. 10.1016/j.desal.2005.04.072.
59. Haslam, N. 2012. Psychology in the bathroom. Macmillan Palgrave, New York, 174 p.
60. Hegger, D., and van Vliet, B. 2010. End user perspectives on the transformation of sanitary systems. In Social Perspectives on the Sanitation Challenge. Edited by B. van Vliet, G. Spaargaren, and P. Oosterveer. 2010. Springer Science+Business Media B. V., New York, pp. 203-216.
61. Heinonen-Tanski H. Sjöblom A. Fabritius H. Karinen P. 2007. Pure human urine is a good fertiliser for cucumbers. Bioresour. Technol. 98 (1): 214-217. 10.1016/j.biortech.2005.11.024. 16413181.
62. Hellström D. Baky A. Jeppsson U. Jönsson H. Kärrman E. 2008. Comparison of environmental effects and resource consumption for different wastewater and organic waste manage. Systems in a New City area in Sweden. Water Res. 80 (8): 708-718. 10.2175/106143008X276705.
63. Hendricks C. Obermosterer R. Müller D. Kytzia S. Baccini P. Brunner P. 2000. Material flow analysis: a tool to support environmental policy decision making. Case studies on the city of Vienna and the Swiss lowlands. Local Environment, 5 (3): 311-328. 10.1080/13549830050134257.
64. Höglund C. Ashbolt N. Stenstrom T.A. Svensson L. 2002. Viral persistence in source-separated human urine. Advances in Environ. Res. 6 (3): 265-275. 10.1016/S1093-0191(01)00057-0.
65. Jarvie H.P. Neal C. Withers P.J.A. 2006. Sewage-effluent phosphorus: a greater risk to river eutrophication than agricultural phosphorus? Sci. Total Environ. 360 (1-3): 246-253. 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2005.08.038.
66. Jefferson, B., and Jeffrey, P. 2013. Aerobic elimination of organics and pathogens: greywater treatment. In: Source separation and decentralization for wastewater management. Edited by T.A. Larsen, K. Udert, and J. Lienert. IWA Publishing, London, UK. pp. 275-289.
67. Jewitt S. 2011. Geographies of shit: spatial and temporal variations in attitudes towards human waste. Progress in Human Geography, 35 (5): 608-626. 10.1177/0309132510394704.
68. Jimenez, B., and Asano, T. 2008. Water reclamation and reuse around the world. In Water Reuse: An International Survey of current practice, issues, and needs. Edited by B. Jimenez and T. Asano. IWA Publishing, London, UK. pp. 3-26.
69. Jönsson, H., and Vinnerås, B. 2013. Closing the loop: recycling nutrients to agriculture. In Source separation and decentralization for wastewater management. Edited by T.A. Larsen, K. Udert, and J. Lienert. IWA Publishing, London, UK. pp. 163-178.
70. Jönsson, H., Tidåker, P., and Stintzing, A.R. 2010. Role of farmers in improving the sustainability of sanitation systems. In Social Perspectives on the Sanitation Challenge. Edited by B. van Vliet, G. Spaargaren, and P. Oosterveer. 2010. Springer Science+Business Media B. V., New York, pp. 179-188.
71. Kabdaşli, I., Tünay, O., and Udert, K.M. 2013. Transfer into the solid phase. In: Source separation and decentralization for wastewater management. Edited by T.A. Larsen, K. Udert, and J. Lienert. IWA Publishing, London, UK. pp. 351-365.
72. Kalavrouziotis I.K. Koukoulakis P.H. 2012. Soil pollution under the effect of treated municipal wastewater. Environ. Monit. Assess. 184 (10): 6297-6305. 10.1007/s10661-011-2420-0. 22083400.
73. Kampschreur M.J. Temmink H. Kleerebezem R. Jetten M.S.M. van Loosdrecht M.C.M. 2009. Nitrous oxide emission during wastewater treatment. Water Res. 43 (17): 4093-4103. 10.1016/j.watres.2009.03.001. 19666183.
74. Kantanoleon N. Zampetakis L. Manios T. 2007. Public perspectives towards wastewater reuse in a medium size, seaside, Mediterranean city: a pilot survey. Resour., Conserv. Recycl. 50 (3): 282-292. 10.1016/j.resconrec.2006.06.006.
75. Karak T. Bhattacharyya P. 2011. Human urine as a source of alternative natural fertilizer in agriculture: a flight of fancy or an achievable reality. Resour., Conserv. Recycl. 55 (4): 400-408. 10.1016/j.resconrec.2010.12.008.
76. Kasprzk-Hordern B. Dinsdale R.M. Guwy A.J. 2009. The removal of pharmaceuticals, personal care products, endocrine disruptors and illicit drugs during wastewater treatment and its impact on the quality of receiving waters. Water Res. 44 (6): 363-380. 10.1016/j.watres.2008.10.047.
77. Kelly J.J. Häggblom M. Tate R.L. 1999. Effects of the land application of sewage sludge on soil heavy metal concentrations and soil microbial communities. Soil Biol. Biochem. 31 (10): 1467-1470. 10.1016/S0038-0717(99)00060-7.
78. Khan S.J. Gerrard L.E. 2006. Stakeholder communications for successful water reuse operations. Desalination, 187 (1-3): 191-202. 10.1016/j.desal.2005.04.079.
79. Khan U. Nicell J.A. 2010. Assessing the risk of exogenously consumed pharmaceuticals in land-applied human urine. Water Sci. Technol. 62 (6): 1335-1345. 10.2166/wst.2010.427. 20861548.
80. Kirchmann H. Pettersson S. 1995. Human urine-chemical composition and fertilizer use efficiency. Fertilizer Research, 40 (2): 149-154. 10.1007/BF00750100.
81. Kolpin D.A. Furlong E.T. Meyer M.T. Thurman E.M. Zaugg S.D. Barber L.B. Buxton H.T. 2002. Pharmaceuticals, hormones, and other organic wastewater contaminants in US Streams, 1999-2000: a national reconnaissance. Environ. Sci. Technol. 36 (6): 1202-1211. 10.1021/es011055j. 11944670.
82. Kümmerer, K. 2013. The issue of micropollutants in urban water management. In Source separation and decentralization for wastewater management. Edited by T.A. Larsen, K. Udert, and J. Lienert. IWA Publishing, London, UK. pp. 71-84.
83. Kutu F.R. Muchaonyerwa P. Mnkeni P.N.S. 2010. Complementary nutrient effects of separately collected human faeces and urine on the yield and nutrient uptake of spinach (Spinacia oleracea). Waste Manage. Res. 29 (5): 532-539. 10.1177/0734242X10374900.
84. Lamichhane K.M. Babcock R.W. 2013. Survey of attitudes and perceptions of urine-diverting toilets and human waste recycling in Hawaii. Sci. Total Environ. 443: 749-756. 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2012.11.039. 23228720.
85. Langergraber G. Muellegger E. 2005. Ecological sanitation-a way to solve global sanitation problems? Environ. Int. 31 (3): 433-444. 10.1016/j.envint.2004.08.006. 15734195.
86. LaPara T.M. Burch T.R. McNamara P.J. Tan D.T. Yan M. Eichmiller J.J. 2011. Tertiary-treated municipal wastewater is a significant point source of antibiotic resistance genes into Duluth-Superior harbor. Environ. Sci. Technol. 45 (22): 9543-9549. 10.1021/es202775r. 21981654.
87. Larsen, T.A., and Gujer, W. 2013. Implementation of source separation and decentralization in cities. In Source separation and decentralization for wastewater management. Edited by T.A. Larsen, K. Udert, and J. Lienert. IWA Publishing, London, UK. pp. 135-150.
88. Larsen, T.A., and Lienert, J. 2003. Societal implications of re-engineering the toilet. Water Intelligence, March 2003. UNIQUE ID: 200303006. Available from www.iwaponline.com/wio/2003/03/default001.htm.
89. Larsen T.A. Alder A.C. Eggen R.I.L. Maurer M. Lienert J. 2009. Source separation: will we see a paradigm shift in wastewater handling? Environ. Sci. Technol. 43 (16): 6121-6125. 10.1021/es803001r. 19746701.
90. Larsen, T.A., Udert, K., and Lienert, J. 2013. Source separation and decentralization for wastewater management. IWA Publishing, London, UK. 520 p.
91. Leal L.H. Vieno N. Temmink H. Zeeman G. Buishman C.J.N. 2010. Occurrence of xenobiotics in gray water and removal in three biological treatment systems. Environ. Sci. Technol. 44 (17): 6835-6842. 10.1021/es101509e. 20681737.
92. Lens, P., Zeeman, G., and Lettinga, G. 2001. Decentralised sanitation and reuse: concepts, systems and implementation. IWA Publishing, London, UK. 650 p.
93. Leslie, G., and Bradford-Hartke, Z. 2013. Membrane processes. In Source separation and decentralization for wastewater management. Edited by T.A. Larsen, K. Udert, and J. Lienert. IWA Publishing, London, UK. pp. 367-381.
94. Levine A.D. Asano T. 2004. Recovering sustainable water from wastewater. Environ. Sci. Technol. 38 (11): 201A-208A. 10.1021/es040504n. 15224722.
95. Lewis D.L. Gattie D.K. 2002. Pathogen risks from applying sewage sludge to land. Environ. Sci. Technol. 36 (13): 286A-293A. 10.1021/es0223426. 12144261.
96. Lienert J. Larsen T.A. 2010. High acceptance of urine source separation in seven european countries: a review. Environ. Sci. Technol. 44 (2): 556-566. 10.1021/es9028765. 20000706.
97. Lienert J. Monstadt J. Truffer B. 2006. Future scenarios for a sustainable water sector: a case study from Switzerland. Environ. Sci. Technol. 40 (2): 436-442. 10.1021/es0514139. 16468386.
98. Lienert J. Koller M. Konrad J. Mcardell C.S. Schuwirth N. 2011. Multiple-criteria decision analysis reveals high stakeholder preference to remove pharmaceuticals from hospital wastewater. Environ. Sci. Technol. 45 (9): 3848-3857. 10.1021/es1031294. 21417333.
99. Listowski A. Ngo H.H. Guo W.S. Vigneswaran S. Shin H.S. Moon H. 2011. Greenhouse gas (ghg) emissions from urban wastewater system: future assessment framework and methodology. Journal of Water Sustainability, 1 (1): 113-125. Available from http://www.jwsponline.com/uploadpic/Magazine/2011110209131249918220.pdf [accessed 5 November 2013].
100. Liu Z. Zhao Q. Wang K. Lee D. Qui W. Wang J. 2008. Urea hydrolysis and recovery of nitrogen and phosphorus as MAP from stale human urine. J. Environ. Sci. (Beijing, China), 20 (8): 1018-1024. 10.1016/S1001-0742(08)62202-0.
101. Liu Z. Kanjo Y. Mizutani S. 2009. Urinary excretion rates of natural estrogens and androgens from humans, and their occurrence and fate in the environment: a review. Sci. Total Environ. 407 (18): 4975-4985. 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2009.06.001. 19559467.
102. Londong, J. 2013. Practical experience with source separation in Germany. In Source separation and decentralization for wastewater management. Edited by T.A. Larsen, K. Udert, and J. Lienert. IWA Publishing, London, UK. pp. 423-430.
103. Magid J. Eilersen A.M. Wrisberg S. Henze M. 2006. Possibilities and barriers for recirculation of nutrients and organic matter from urban to rural areas: a technical theoretical framework applied to the medium-sized town Hillerød, Denmark. Ecological Engineering, 28 (1): 44-54. 10.1016/j.ecoleng.2006.03.009.
104. Maimon A. Tal A. Friedler E. Gross A. 2010. Safe on-site reuse of greywater for irrigation-a critical review of current guidelines. Environ. Sci. Technol. 44 (9): 3213-3220. 10.1021/es902646g. 20380412.
105. Maurer, M. 2013. Full costs, (dis-)economies of scale and the price of uncertainty. In Source separation and decentralization for wastewater management. Edited by T.A. Larsen, K. Udert, and J. Lienert. IWA Publishing, London, UK. pp. 85-100.
106. Maurer M. Rothenberger D. Larsen T.A. 2006. Decentralised wastewater treatment technologies from a national perspective: at what cost are they competitive? Water Sci. Technol.: Water Supply, 5 (6): 145-154.
107. McCarty P. Bae J. Kim J. 2011. Domestic wastewater treatment as a net energy producer-can this be achieved? Environ. Sci. Technol. 45 (17): 7100-7106. 10.1021/es2014264. 21749111.
108. Meinzinger, F., Ziedorn, V., and Peters, I. 2010. Interactions between urban forms and source-separating sanitation technologies. In Social Perspectives on the Sanitation Challenge. Edited by B. van Vliet, G. Spaargaren, and P. Oosterveer. 2010. Springer Science+Business Media B.V., New York, pp. 125-144.
109. Melosi, M. 2008. The sanitary city: environmental services in urban America from colonial times to the present. University of Pittsburgh Press, Pittsburgh, PA. 400 p.
110. Milbrandt, A. 2005. A geographic perspective on the current biomass resource availability in the United States. National Renewable Energy Laboratory Technical Report NREL/TP-560-39181. Available from http://www.afdc.energy.gov/pdfs/39181.pdf [accessed 5 November 2013].
111. Mitchell V.G. 2006. Applying integrated urban water management concepts: a review of australian experience. Environmental Management, 37 (5): 589-605. 10.1007/s00267-004-0252-1. 16508805.
112. Mnkeni P.N.S. Austin L.M. 2009. Fertiliser value of human manure from pilot urine-diversion toilets. Water SA, 35 (1): 133-138. Available from http://www.ajol.info/index.php/wsa/article/view/76717 [accessed 6 November 2013].
113. Mulder A. 2003. The quest for sustainable nitrogen removal technologies. Water Sci. Technol. 48 (1): 67-75. 12926622.
114. Nakagawa, N., Kwamura, A., and Amaguchi, H. 2012. Energy and cost benefit evaluation of a urine diversion system-a case study at highway service areas in Japan. In ASCE World Environmental and Water Resource Congress 2012: Crossing Boundaries. Edited by E.D. Loucks. pp. 2795-2802.
115. National Research Council. 2002. Biosolids applied to land: advancing standards and practices. National Academies Press. Washington, D.C. 346 p. Available from http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?isbn=0309084865 [accessed 5 November 2013].
116. National Research Council. 2012. Water reuse: potential for expanding the nation's water supply through reuse of municipal wastewater. National Academies Press. Washington, D.C. 276p. Available from http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record-id=13303&page=R1 [accessed 5 November 2013].
117. Neset T.-S.S. Drangert J.-O. Bader H.-P. Scheidegger R. 2010. Recycling of phosphorus in urban Sweden: a historical overview to guide a strategy for the future. Water Policy, 12: 611-624. 10.2166/wp.2009.165.
118. New York Department of Environmental Conservation. 2013. Combined sewer overflow. Available from http://www.dec.ny.gov/chemical/48595.html [accessed November 5, 2013].
119. Newman P.W.G. 1999. Sustainability and cities: extending the metabolism model. Landscape and Urban Planning. 44 (4): 219-226. 10.1016/S0169-2046(99)00009-2.
120. Nichols C.E. 2004. Overview of anaerobic digestion technologies in Europe. BioCycle, 45 (1): 47-53.
121. Nielsen J.B.H. Al Seadi T. Oleskowicz-Popiel P. 2009. The future of anaerobic digestion and biogas utilization. Bioresour. Technol. 100 (22): 5478-5484. 10.1016/j.biortech.2008.12.046. 19217772.
122. Nordin A. Nyberg K. Vinneras B. 2009. Inactivation of Ascaris eggs in source-separated urine and feces by ammonia at ambient temperatures. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 75 (3): 662-667. 10.1128/AEM.01250-08. 19060175.
123. Orumwense P.O. Torvinen E. Heinonen-Tanski H. 2013. The survival of mycobacteria in pure human urine. Water Sci. Technol. 67 (8): 1773-1777. 10.2166/wst.2013.052. 23579832.
124. Otterpohl, R., and Buzie, C. 2013. Treatment of the solid fraction. In Source separation and decentralization for wastewater management. Edited by T.A. Larsen, K. Udert, and J. Lienert. IWA Publishing, London, UK. pp. 259-273.
125. Otterpohl R. Grottker M. Lange J. 1997. Sustainable water and waste manage in urban areas. Water Sci. Technol. 35 (9): 121-133. 10.1016/S0273-1223(97)00190-X.
126. Pachepsky, Y., Shelton, D.R., McLain, J.E.T., Patel, J., and Mandrell, R.E. 2011. Irrigation waters as a source of pathogenic microorganisms in produce: a review. In Advances in Agronomy. Vol 113. Edited by D.L. Sparks. Elsevier Press, Amsterdam, the Netherlands. pp. 73-138. 10.1016/B978-0-12-386473-4.00007-5.
127. Pearson N.S. Mnkeni F.R. Kutu P.M. Austin L.M. 2008. Evaluation for human urine as a source of nutrients for selected vegetables and maize under tunnel house conditions in the Eastern Cape, South Africa. Waste Manage. Res. 26 (2): 132-139. 10.1177/0734242X07079179.
128. Pradhan S.K. Nerg A.-M. Sjöblom A. Holopainen J.K. Heinonen-Tanski H. 2007. Use of human urine fertilizer in cultivation of cabbage (Brassica oleracea)-impacts on chemical, microbial, and flavor quality. J. Agric. Food Chem. 55 (21): 8657-8663. 10.1021/jf0717891. 17894454.
129. Pradhan S.K. Holopainen J.K. Weisell J. Heinonen-Tanski H. 2010. Human urine and wood ash as plant nutrients for red beet (Beta vulgaris) cultivation: impacts on yield quality. J. Agric. Food Chem. 58 (3): 2034-2039. 10.1021/jf9029157. 20050665.
130. Proença L.C. Ghisi E. Tavares D.F. Coelho M. 2011. Potential for electricity savings by reducing potable water consumption in a city scale. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 55 (11): 960-965. 10.1016/j. resconrec.2011.05.003.
131. Rabalais N.N. Turner R.E. Wiseman W.J. 2002, Gulf of Mexico hypoxia, aka "The dead zone". Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 33: 235-263. 10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.33.010802.150513.
132. Radjenović J. Petrović M. Barceló D. 2009. Fate and distribution of pharmaceuticals in wastewater and sewage sludge of the conventional activated sludge (CAS) and advanced membrane bioreactor (MBR) treatment. Water Res. 43 (3): 831-841. 10.1016/j.watres.2008.11.043. 19091371.
133. Remy C. Jekel M. 2008. Sustainable wastewater management: life cycle assessment of conventional and source-separating urban sanitation systems. Water Sci. Technol. 58 (8): 155-1532. 10.2166/wst/2008.533.
134. Renzetti S. Kushner J. 2004. Full cost accounting for water supply and sewage treatment: concepts and case application. Canadian Water Res. J. 29 (1): 13-22. Available from http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.4296/cwrj13 [accessed 5 November 2013]. 10.4296/cwrj13.
135. Rittman, B.E. 2013. The energy issue in urban water management. In Source separation and decentralization for wastewater management. Edited by T.A. Larsen, K. Udert, and J. Lienert. IWA Publishing, London, UK. pp. 13-27.
136. Robertson D.M. Saad D.A. 2011. Nutrient inputs to the Laurentian Great Lakes by source and watershed estimated using SPARROW watershed models. J. Am. Water Res. Assoc. 47 (5): 1011-1033. 10.1111/j.1752-1688.2011.00574.x. 22457580.
137. Robinson K.G. Robinson C.H. Hawkins S.A. 2005. Assessment of public perception regarding wastewater reuse. Water Sci. Technol.: Water Supply, 5 (1): 59-65.
138. Rockström J. Steffen W. Noone K. Persson Å. Chapin F.S. Lambin E.F. Lenton T.M. Scheffer M. Folke C. Schnellnhuber H.J. Nykvist B.Z. de Wit C.A. Hughes T. van der Leeuw S. Rodhe H. Sörlin S. Snyder P.K. Costanza R. Svedin U. Falkenmark M. Karlberg L. Corell R.W. Fabry V.J. Hansen J. Walker B. Liverman D. Richardson K. Crutzen P. Foley J.A. 2009. A safe operating space for humanity. Nature, 461 (7263): 472-475. 10.1038/461472a. 19779433.
139. Ronteltap M. Maurer M. Gujer W. 2007. The behaviour of pharmaceuticals and heavy metals during struvite precipitation in urine. Water Res. 41 (9): 1859-1868. 10.1016/j.watres.2007.01.026. 17368503.
140. Rosemarin A. 2006. Sustainable sanitation and water in small urban centres. Water Sci. Technol. 51 (8): 109-118. 16007935.
141. Rosenquist L.E.D. 2005. A psychosocial analysis of the human-sanitation nexus. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 25 (3): 335-346. 10.1016/j.jenvp.2005.07.003.
142. Rozin, P., Haidt, J., and McCauley, C.R. 2008. Disgust. In Handbook of Emotions. 3rd Edition. Edited by M. Lewis, J.M. Haviland-Jones, and L.F. Barrett. The Guilford Press, New York, pp. 757-776.
143. Saeck E.A. O'Brien K.R. Weber T.R. Burford M.A. 2013. Changes to chronic nitrogen loading from sewage discharges modify standing stocks of coastal phytoplankton. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 71 (1-2): 159-167. 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2013.03.020. 23632088.
144. Sahely H.R. Dudding S. Kennedy C.A. 2003. Estimating the urban metabolism of Canadian cities: Greater Toronto area case study. Can. J. Civ. Eng. 30 (2): 468-483. 10.1139/l02-105.
145. Schosseler P. Lohmann T. Schmitt B. Perbal S. Dubois C. Sauerborn K. Muschwitz C. Weidenhaupt A. 2007. Implementing sustainable sanitation concepts in Luxembourg: methodological approach and outcomes. Water Sci. Technol. 56 (5): 33-41. 10.2166/wst.2007.554. 17881835.
146. Schwarzenbach R.P. Egli T. Hofstetter T.B. von Gunten U. Wehrli B. 2010. Global water pollution and human health. Annual Reviews of Environment and Resources, 35: 109-136. 10.1146/annurev-environ-100809-125342.
147. Shrestha D. Srivastava A. Shakya S.M. Khadka J. Acharya B.S. 2013. Use of compost supplemented human urine in sweet pepper (Capsicum annum L.) production. Sci. Hortic. 153: 8-12. 10.1016/j.scienta.2013.01.022.
148. Stark, K. 2004. Phosphorus recovery-experience from European countries. In Proceedings of Polish-Swedish seminars. Integration and optimization of urban sanitation systems. Edited by E. Plaza, E. Levlin, and B. Hultman. Stockholm, SE. pp. 19-30. Available from http://www2.lwr.kth.se/forskningsprojekt/Polishproject/rep12/StarkSthlm19.pdf [accessed 6 November 2013].
149. Stenström, T.A. 2013. Hygiene, a major challenge for source separation and decentralization. In Source separation and decentralization for wastewater management. Edited by T.A. Larsen, K. Udert, and J. Lienert. IWA Publishing, London, UK. pp. 151-161.
150. Sterrit R.M. Lester J.N. 1980. The value of sewage sludge to agriculture and effects of the agricultural use of sludges contaminated with toxic elements: A review. Sci. Total Environ. 16 (1): 55-90. 10.1016/0048-9697(80)90102-3. 7433970.
151. Stevenson R. Repacholi B. 2005. Does the source of an interpersonal odour affect disgust? A disease risk model and its alternatives. European Journal of Social Psychology, 35: 375-401. 10.1002/ejsp.263.
152. Swart, D., and Palsma A.J. 2013. The Netherlands: "Nieuwe Sanitatie." In Source separation and decentralization for wastewater management. Edited by T.A. Larsen, K. Udert, and J. Lienert. IWA Publishing, London, UK. pp. 431-438.
153. Tchobanoglous, G., and Leverenz, H. 2013. The rationale for decentralization of wastewater infrastructure. In Source separation and decentralization for wastewater management. Edited by T.A. Larsen, K. Udert, and J. Lienert. IWA Publishing, London, UK. pp. 101-115.
154. Tchobanoglous, G., Burton, F.L., and Stensel, D.H. 2003. Wastewater engineering, treatment, and reuse. McGraw-Hill, New York, 1819 p.
155. Templer D.I. King F.L. Brooner R.K. Corgiat M. 1984. Assessment of body elimination attitude. J. Clin. Psychol. 40 (3): 754-759. 10.1002/1097-4679(198405)40:3<754::AID-JCLP2270400321>3.0.CO;2-M. 6746985.
156. Ternes T.A. Joss A. Siegrist H. 2004. Scrutinizing pharmaceuticals and personal care products in wastewater treatment. Environ. Sci. Technol. 38 (20): 392A-399A. 10.1021/es040639t. 15543724.
157. Thibodeau C. Monette F. Glaus M. Laflamme C.B. 2011. Economic viability and critical influencing factors assessment of black water and grey water source-separation sanitation system. Water Sci. Technol. 64 (12): 2417-2424. 10.2166/wst. 2011.796. 22170836.
158. Tidaker P. Mattsson B. Jönsson H. 2007. Environmental impact of wheat production using human urine and mineral fertilisers-a scenario study. J. Cleaner Prod. 15 (1): 52-62. 10.1016/j.jclepro.2005.04.019.
159. Tilley, E. 2013. Conceptualizing sanitation systems to account for new complexities in processing and management. In Source separation and decentralization for wastewater management. Edited by T.A. Larsen, K. Udert, and J. Lienert. IWA Publishing, London, UK. pp. 227-239.
160. Toze S. 2006. Reuse of effluent water-benefits and risks. Agricultural Water Management, 80: 147-159. 10.1016/j.agwat.2005.07.010.
161. Travis M.J. Wiel-Shafran A. Weisbrod N. Adar E. Gross A. 2010. Greywater reuse for irrigation: effect on soil properties. Sci. Total Environ. 408 (12): 2501-2508. 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2010.03.005. 20350744.
162. Truffer, B., Binz, C., Gebauer, H., and Störmer, E. 2013. Market success of on-site treatment: a systemic innovation problem. In Source separation and decentralization for wastewater management. Edited by T.A. Larsen, K. Udert, and J. Lienert. IWA Publishing, London, UK. pp. 209-223.
163. Udert, K.M., and Jenni, S. 2013. Biological nitrogen conversion processes. In Source separation and decentralization for wastewater management. Edited by T.A. Larsen, K. Udert, and J. Lienert. IWA Publishing, London, UK. pp. 291-305.
164. US Census Bureau. 2013. International programs: international data base. Available from http://www.census.gov/population/international/data/idb/informationGateway.php [accessed 6 November 2013].
165. US EPA. 2004 a. Primer for municipal wastewater treatment systems. EPA office of wastewater management. EPA-832-R-04-0001. Available from http://water.epa.gov/aboutow/owm/upload/2005-08-19-primer.pdf. [accessed 6 November 2013].
166. US EPA. 2004 b. Guidelines for water reuse. EPA municipal support division, office of wastewater management. EPA/625/R-04/108. Available from http://water.epa.gov/aboutow/owm/upload/Water-Reuse-Guidelines-625r04108.pdf [accessed 6 November 2013].
167. US EPA. 2006. Wastewater management fact sheet, energy conservation. EPA 832-F-06-024. Available from http://water.epa.gov/scitech/wastetech/upload/2008-01-16-mtb-energycon-fasht-final.pdf [accessed 6 November 2013].
168. US EPA. 2007. Opportunities for and benefits of combined heat and power at wastewater treatment facilities. EPA-430-R-07-003. Available from http://water.epa.gov/infrastructure/sustain/upload/2009-5-13-wwtf-opportunities.pdf [accessed 6 November 2013].
169. US EPA. 2008. Clean watersheds needs survey-report to Congress. EPA-832-R-10-002. Available from http://water.epa.gov/scitech/datait/databases/cwns/upload/cwns2008rtc.pdf [accessed 6 November 2013].
170. US EPA. 2010 a. State of technology for rehabilitation of wastewater collection systems. EPA/600/R-10/078. Available from http://nepis.epa.gov/Adobe/PDF/P1008C45.pdf [accessed 6 November 2013].
171. US EPA. 2010 b. Evaluation of energy conservation measures for wastewater treatment facilities. EPA-832-R-10-005. Available from http://water.epa.gov/scitech/wastetech/upload/Evaluation-of-Energy-Conservation-Measures-for-Wastewater-Treatment-Facilities.pdf [accessed 6 November 2013].
172. US EPA. 2012. Water: sewage sludge (biosolids) frequently asked questions. Available from http://water.epa.gov/polwaste/wastewater/treatment/biosolids/genqa.cfm [accessed 6 November 2013].
173. van Vliet, B., and Spaargaren, G. 2010. Sense and sanitation. In Social Perspectives on the Sanitation Challenge. Edited by B. van Vliet, G. Spaargaren, and P. Oosterveer. 2010. Springer Science+Business Media B.V., New York, pp. 31-47.
174. van Vliet B. Spaargaren G. Oosterveer P. 2011. Sanitation under challenge: contributions from the social sciences. Water Policy, 13 (6): 797-809. 10.2166/wp.2011.089.
175. van Vliet W. 1996. Sustainable development, global restructuring and immigrant housing. Habitat International, 20 (3): 349-358. 10.1016.0197-3975(96)00018-5.
176. van Vurren D.P. Bouwman A.F. Beusen A.H.W. 2010. Phosphorus demand for the 1970-2100 period: a scenario analysis of resource depletion. Global Environmental Change, 20 (3): 428-439. 10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2010.04.004.
177. Varis O. Somlyódy L. 1997. Global urbanization and urban water: can sustainability be afforded? Water Sci. Technol. 35 (9): 21-32. 10.1016/S0273-1223(97)00181-9.
178. Vinnerås, B., and Jönsson, H. 2013. The Swedish experience with source separation. In Source separation and decentralization for wastewater management. Edited by T.A. Larsen, K. Udert, and J. Lienert. IWA Publishing, London, UK. pp. 415-422.
179. Vinnerås B. Nordin A. Niwagaba C.B. Nyberg K. 2008. Inactivation of bacteria and viruses in human urine depending on temperature and dilution rate. Water Res. 42 (15): 4067-4074. 10.1016/j.watres.2008.06.014. 18718625.
180. Wang H. Brow S.L. Magesan G.N. Slade A.H. Quiern M. Clinton P.W. Payn T.W. 2008. Technological options for the management of biosolids. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 15 (4): 308-317. 10.1007/s11356-008-0012-5.
181. Wang L. Peng J. Wang B. Yang L. 2006. Design and operation of an eco-system for municipal wastewater treatment and utilization. Water Sci. Technol. 54 (11-12): 429-436. 10.2166/wst.2006.923. 17302348.
182. Warren-Rhodes K. Koenig A. 2001. Escalating trends in the urban metabolism of Hong Kong: 1971-1997. Ambio, 30 (7): 429-438. 10.1579/0044-7447-30.7.429.
183. Water Environ. Res. Foundation. 2011. Nutrient recovery: state of the knowledge as of December 2010. Available from www.werf.org/c/2011Challenges/Nutrient-Recovery.aspx [accessed 6 November 2013].
184. Werner C. Panesar A. Rud S.B. Olt C.U. 2009. Ecological sanitation: principles, technologies and project examples for sustainable wastewater and excreta management. Desalination, 248 (1-3): 392-401. 10.1016/j.desal.2008.05.080.
185. Wilsenach J.A. Schuurbiers C.A.H. van Loosdrecht M.C.M. 2007. Phosphate and potassium recovery from source separated urine through struvite precipitation. Water Res. 41 (2): 458-466. 10.1016/j.watres.2006.10.014. 17126877.
186. Winker M. Vinnerås B. Muskolus A. Arnold U. Clemens J. 2009. Fertiliser products from new sanitation systems: their potential values and risks. Bioresour. Technol. 100 (18): 4090-4096. 10.1016/j.biortech.2009.03.024. 19375910.
187. Winker M. Clemens J. Reich M. Gulyas H. Otterpohl R. 2010. Ryegrass uptake of carbamazepine and ibuprofen applied by urine fertilization. Sci. Total Environ. 408 (8): 1902-1908. 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2010.01.028. 20153514.
188. Wolman A. 1965. The metabolism of cities. Sci. Am. 213 (3): 179-190. 10.1038/scientificamerican0965-178. 14338520.
189. Writer J.H. Ferrer I. Barber L.B. Thurman E.M. 2013. Widespread occurrence of neuro-active pharmaceuticals and metabolites in 24 Minnesota rivers and wastewaters. Sci. Total Environ. 461-462: 519-527. 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.04.099. 23751335.
190. Xu M. Crittenden J.C. Chen Y. Thomas V.M. Noonan D.S. Desroches R. Brown M.A. French S.P. 2010. Gigaton problems need gigaton solutions. Environ. Sci. Technol. 44 (11): 4037-4041. 10.1021/es903306e. 20462269.
191. Yusuf R.O. Noor Z.Z. Abba A.H. Abu Hassan M.A. Mohd Din M.F. 2012. Methane emission by sectors: a comprehensive review of emission sources and mitigation methods. Renewable Sustainable Energy Rev. 16 (7): 5059-5070. 10.1016/j.rser.2012.04.008.