Bodies for sale: Ethics and exploitation in the human body trade

Bodies for Sale: Ethics and Exploitation in the Human Body Trade

Volumn , Issue , 2003, Pages 1-248

  Wilkinson, Stephen ^a  

^a KEELE UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

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EID: 84909422203     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.4324/9780203480724     Document Type: Book

References (182)

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7. See also R. Arneson, 'Exploitation', in L. Becker (ed.), Encyclopaedia of Ethics, New York, Garland, 1992, p. 350.
8. Wendler, 'Informed consent, exploitation and whether it is possible to conduct human subjects research without either one', Bioethics, 2000, vol. 14, pp. 310-39.
9. See also R. Goodin, 'Exploiting a situation and exploiting a person', in A. Reeve (ed.), Modern Theories of Exploitation, London, Sage, 1987, p. 167: 'there is nothing wrong (nothing necessarily wrong, anyway) with exploiting waves or rocks or sunlight'.
10. Similarly, Nancy Davis writes: 'The belief that it is wrong to use persons is one that is well entrenched in our moral thinking. In one form or another, it underlies a wide range of criticisms and analyses.' N. Davies, 'Using persons and common sense', Ethics, 1984, vol. 94, pp. 387-406.
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14. Peter Singer is one of many to suggest that humans often wrongfully exploit non-human animals. P. Singer, Practical Ethics, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1979, p. 288.
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16. For a discussion of these points see, for example: H. Klepper, 'Sexual exploitation and the value of persons', Journal of Value Inquiry, 1993, vol. 27, pp. 479-486.
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51. A. Wood, 'Exploitation', Social Philosophy and Policy, 1995, vol. 12, p. 149 (my italics).
52. See also A. Wertheimer, 'Two questions about surrogacy and exploitation', Philosophy and Public Affairs, 1992, vol. 21, p. 223.
53. R. Gillon, Philosophical Medical Ethics, Chichester, Wiley, 1986, p. 113.
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55. As ever, things are not as straightforward as I suggest. For a more detailed discussion of drunken consent to sexual relations see A. Wertheimer, 'Intoxicated consent to sexual relations', Law and Philosophy, 2001, vol. 20, pp. 373-401.
56. J. Harris, The Value of Life, London, Routledge, 1985, p. 143.
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58. G. Dworkin, The Theory and Practice of Autonomy, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1988, p. 14.
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62. This discussion of coercion is, of necessity, relatively brief and cannot do justice to the many complexities associated with the topic. There is a not insubstantial philosophical literature on coercion, of which the following are examples: L. Alexander, 'Zimmerman on coercive wage offers', Philosophy and Public Affairs, 1983, vol. 12, pp. 160-164.
63. C. Carr, 'Coercion and freedom', American Philosophical Quarterly, 1988, vol. 15, pp. 59-67.
64. M. Gilbert, 'Agreements, coercion and obligation', Philosophy and Public Affairs, 1993, vol. 103, pp. 679-706.
65. Martin Gunderson, 'Threats and coercion', Canadian Journal of Philosophy, 1979, vol. 9, pp. 247-259.
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68. P. Wilson, 'Ryan on coercion', Mind, 1982, vol. 91, pp. 257-263.
69. A. Wertheimer, Coercion, Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press, 1988.
70. D. Zimmerman, 'Coercive wage offers', Philosophy and Public Affairs, 1981, vol. 10, pp. 121-145.
71. D. Zimmerman, 'More on coercive wage offers: a reply to Alexander', Philosophy and Public Affairs, 1983, vol. 12, pp. 165-171.
72. See also G. Dworkin, 'Compulsion and moral concepts', Ethics, 1968, vol. 78, p. 229.
73. A. Wertheimer, 'Two questions about surrogacy and exploitation', Philosophy and Public Affairs, 1992, vol. 21, p. 213.
74. See also M. Gorr, 'Toward a theory of coercion', Canadian Journal of Philosophy, 1986, vol. 16, pp. 383-406; Greene, 'Coercion:description or evaluation?'
75. Carl Becker, 'Money talks, money kills - the economics of transplantation in Japan and China', Bioethics, 1999, vol. 13, p. 241.
76. See also D. Josefson, 'Two arrested in US for selling organs for transplantation', British Medical Journal, 7 March 1998, vol. 316, p. 723, http://www.bmj.com.
77. 'Group works for end to desperate practice of organ selling', CNN.com, 14 November 1999, http://www5.cnn.com/asianow/south/9911/14/organ. selling/index.html.
78. J. Siegel-Itzkovich, '"Sale of organs" to be investigated', British Medical Journal, 20 January 2001, vol. 322, p. 128, http://www.bmj.com.
79. J. Siegel-Itzkovich, 'Israel investigates organ sales', British Medical Journal, 9 November 1996, vol. 313, p. 1167, http://www.bmj.com.
80. J. Radcliffe-Richards et al., 'The case for allowing kidney sales', Lancet, 27 June 1998, vol. 351, p. 1950.
81. It is also a subject on which there is a huge philosophical and legal-theoretic literature. See, for example, J. Bickenbach, 'Law and morality', Law and Philosophy, 1989, vol. 8, pp. 291-300.
82. P. Devlin, The Enforcement of Morals, London, Oxford University Press, 1965.
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88. D. Welch (ed.), Law and Morality, Philadelphia, Fortress Press, 1987.
89. S. Wilkinson, 'Commodification arguments for the legal prohibition of organ sale', Health Care Analysis, 2000, vol. 8, pp. 189-201.
90. World Medical Association, Statement on the Live Organ Trade (adopted by the 37th World Medical Assembly, Brussels, Belgium, October 1985), http://www.wma.net/e/policy/17-m_e.html.
91. World Medical Association, Statement on Human Organ and Tissue Donation and Transplantation (adopted by the 52nd WMA General Assembly, Edinburgh, Scotland, October 2000), http://www.wma.net/e/policy/17-180_e.html.
92. P. Kandela, 'India: kidney bazaar', Lancet, 22 June 1991, vol. 337, p. 1534.
93. V. Walia, 'Racketeers cheat kidney donors', Tribune website, 6 October 1999, http://www.tribuneindia.com/99oct06/head3.htm.
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96. M. McLeod, 'Kidneys for sale after £4m win', Guardian, 31 March 2000, http://www.guardian.co.uk/Archive/Article/0,4273,3980667,00.html.
97. Cameron and Hoffenberg, 'The ethics of organ transplantation reconsidered'. Organ sale is compared to 'risky labour' by a number of authors, for example, J. Harris, The Value of Life, London, Routledge, 1985, pp. 142-145.
98. S. Wilkinson and E. Garrard, 'Bodily integrity and the sale of human organs', Journal of Medical Ethics, 1996, vol. 22, pp. 334-339.
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106. J. Harvey, 'Paying organ donors', Journal of Medical Ethics, 1990, vol. 16, p. 119.
107. M. Wilkinson and A. Moore, 'Inducements revisited', Bioethics, 1999, vol. 13, p. 123.
108. R. Gillon, 'Commerce and medical ethics', Journal of Medical Ethics, 1997, vol. 23, p. 68.
109. P. Short, 'Organ donations don't keep up with those wanting transplants', American Medical Association website, 7 June 2001, http://www.amaassn. org.
110. M. Wilkinson and A. Moore, 'Inducement in research', Bioethics, 1997, vol. 11(5), pp. 373-389.
111. Nuffield Council on Bioethics, The Ethics of Clinical Research in Developing Countries, London, Nuffield Council on Bioethics, October 1999, p. 14, http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/fileLibrary/pdf/clinicaldiscuss1.pdf (my italics).
112. A. Lynne (director), Indecent Proposal, Paramount Pictures, 1993.
113. Ananova, 'All is fair in love and money, reveals survey', 11 October 2000, http://www.ananova.com/news/story/sm_82744.html.
114. Ananova, 'Britons would have sex for cash, survey says', 12 November 2000, http://www.ananova.com/news/story/sm_114136.html.
115. There's a huge philosophical literature on the nature of temptation, irresistible desires, and the relationship between temptation and free will. See, for example, J. Bigelow, 'Temptation and the will', American Philosophical Quarterly, 1990, vol. 27, pp. 39-49.
116. J. Day, 'Temptation', American Philosophical Quarterly, 1993, vol. 30, pp. 175-181.
117. J. Day, 'Bribery and corruption: more about temptation', Journal of Social Philosophy, 1996, vol. 27, pp. 168-175.
118. J. Fulda, 'The mathematical pull of temptation', Mind, 1992, vol. 101, pp. 305-308.
119. P. Hughes, 'Temptation and the manipulation of desire', Journal of Value Inquiry, 1999, vol. 33, pp. 371-379.
120. A. Mele, 'Irresistible desires', Nous, 1990, vol. 24, pp. 455-472.
121. A. Nuyen, 'The nature of temptation', Southern Journal of Philosophy, 1997, vol. 35, pp. 91-103.
122. G. Dworkin, The Theory and Practice of Autonomy, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1988, p. 15.
123. S. Bosely, 'Net surfers lie to hide addiction', Guardian, 30 September 1999, http://www.guardian.co.uk/Archive/Article/0,4273,3907514,00.html.
124. U. Kenny, 'Hooked on addiction', Observer, 18 February 2001, http://www.guardian.co.uk/Archive/Article/0,4273,4137839,00.html.
125. M. Mills, 'Hooked on the exercise high', Guardian, 24 October 2000, http://www.guardian.co.uk/Archive/Article/0,4273,4080695,00.html.
126. J. Pollard, 'Are you addicted to your job?', Observer, 1 October 2000, http://www.guardian.co.uk/Archive/Article/0,4273,4070350,00.html.
127. H. Welford, 'Net-aholics anonymous', Guardian, 30 September 1999, http://www.guardian.co.uk/Archive/Article/0,4273,3907230,00.html.
128. J. Moss and S. King, 'Prostitution - how women sleep rough', National Homeless Alliance (UK) website, 30 April 2001, http://www.nha.org.uk/db/20010430125019.
129. P. Hughes, 'Exploitation, autonomy, and the case for organ sales', International Journal of Applied Philosophy, 1998, vol. 12, p. 90.
130. J. Harvey, 'Paying organ donors', Journal of Medical Ethics, 1990, vol. 16, p. 118.
131. Department of Health, Unrelated Live Transplant Regulatory Authority Report 1995-1998, London, Department of Health, 1999, http://www.doh.gov.uk/ultrarep.htm.
132. R. Ber, 'Ethical issues in gestational surrogacy', Theoretical Medicine and Bioethics, 2000, vol. 21, p. 153.
133. Tessa Jowell, Public Health Minister (England), quoted in BBC News Online, 'Health review proposes regulation for surrogacy', 16 October 1999, http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/health/newsid_192000/192611.stm.
134. M. Brazier, A. Campbell, and S. Golombok, Surrogacy: Review for Health Ministers of Current Arrangements for Payments and Regulation, London, The Stationery Office, 1998. Henceforth, Brazier.
135. S. Wilkinson, 'Commodification arguments for the legal prohibition of organ sale', Health Care Analysis, 2000, vol. 8, pp. 189-201.
136. M. Freeman, 'Does surrogacy have a future after Brazier?', Medical Law Review, 1999, vol. 7, p. 2.
137. M. Freeman, 'Is surrogacy exploitative?', in Sheila McLean (ed.), Legal Issues in Human Reproduction, Aldershot, Dartmouth, 1989, p. 165.
138. M. Warnock et al., Report of the Committee of Inquiry into Human Fertilisation and Embryology, London, HMSO, 1984. Henceforth, Warnock.
139. Judge Richard N. Parslow, Jr, quoted in G. Annas, 'Crazy making: embryos and gestational mothers', Hastings Center Report, January 1991, vol. 21, p. 36.
140. R. Kornegay, 'Is commercial surrogacy baby-selling?', Journal of Applied Philosophy, 1990, vol. 7, p. 46.
141. B. Oxman, 'California's experiment in surrogacy', Lancet, 6 May 1993, vol. 341, p. 1468.
142. E. Anderson, 'Is women's labor a commodity?', Philosophy and Public Affairs, 1990, vol. 19, p. 76.
143. H. McLachlan and J. Swales, 'Babies, child bearers and commodification:Anderson, Brazier et al., and the political economy of commercial surrogate motherhood', Health Care Analysis, 2000, vol. 8, pp. 3-4.
144. See S. Sheldon and S. Wilkinson, 'Termination of pregnancy for reason of foetal disability: are there grounds for a special exception in law?', Medical Law Review, 2001, vol. 9, pp. 85-109.
145. H. Kuhse and P. Singer, Should the Baby Live?, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1985, p. 158 (my italics).
146. J. Harris, 'The welfare of the child', Health Care Analysis, 2000, vol. 8, p. 33.
147. A. Campbell, 'Surrogacy, rights and duties: a partial commentary', Health Care Analysis, 2000, vol. 8, pp. 38-39 (my italics).
148. L. Purdy, 'Surrogate mothering: exploitation or empowerment?', Bioethics, 1989, vol. 3, p. 28.
149. J. Glover, Causing Death and Saving Lives, Harmondsworth, Penguin, 1977, p. 148.
150. C. Erin and J. Harris, 'Surrogacy', Baillière's Clinical Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 1991, vol. 5, p. 628.
151. A. Wertheimer, 'Two questions about surrogacy and exploitation', Philosophy and Public Affairs, 1992, vol. 21, p. 217.
152. L. Andrews, 'Surrogate motherhood: the challenge for feminists', Law, Medicine and Health Care, 1988, vol. 16, p. 75.
153. J. Oakley, 'Altruistic surrogacy and informed consent', Bioethics, 1992, vol. 6, p. 273.
154. A. Wood, 'Exploitation', Social Philosophy and Policy, 1995, vol. 12, p. 148.
155. B. Brecher, 'Surrogacy, liberal individualism and the moral climate', in J. Evans (ed.), Moral Philosophy and Contemporary Problems, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1987, p. 195.
156. D. Resnik, 'The morality of human gene patents', Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal, 1997, vol. 7, p. 44.
157. M. Bunting, 'The debate nobody wants: gene patenting', Guardian, 31 May 2001, http://www.guardian.co.uk/Archive/Article/0,4273,4195342,00.html.
158. A. Moore, 'Owning genetic information and gene enhancement techniques:why privacy and property rights may undermine social control of the human genome', Bioethics, 2000, vol. 14, p. 99.
159. Resnik, 'The morality of human gene patents', p. 45. See also D. Resnik, 'DNA patents and scientific discovery and innovation: assessing benefits and risks', Science and Engineering Ethics, 2001, vol. 7, pp. 29-62.
160. A. Alexandra and A. Walsh, 'Exclusion, commodification, and plant variety rights legislation', Agriculture and Human Values, 1997, vol. 14, p. 313.
161. See, for example, F. Charatan, 'US religious groups oppose gene patents', British Medical Journal, 1995, vol. 310, pp. 1351-1355.
162. M. Hanson, 'Religious voices in biotechnology: the case of gene patenting', Hastings Center Report, 1997, vol. 27, pp. 1-23.
163. M. Sagoff, 'Patented genes: an ethical appraisal', Issues in Science and Technology, 1998, vol. 14, pp. 33-37. See also the following Greenpeace website: http://www.greenpeace.org/~geneng.
164. Leandra Zalabata, an Arahuaco spokesperson, quoted in L. Andrews and D. Nelkin, Body Bazaar: The Market for Human Tissue, New York, Crown, 2001, p. 73.
165. The term 'biopiracy' is now widely used. See, for example, G. Dutfield, 'Bioprospecting or biopiracy?', Biofutur, 2000, vol. 204, pp. 42-45.
166. R. Nash, 'Who benefits from biopiracy?', Phytochemistry, 2001, vol. 56, pp. 403-405.
167. V. Shiva, Biopiracy: The Plunder of Nature and Knowledge, Totnes, Green Books, 1998.
168. E. Gold, Body Parts: Property Rights and the Ownership of Human Biological Materials, Washington, DC, Georgetown University Press, 1996, p. 24.
169. B. Reid, A Practical Guide to Patent Law, London, Sweet and Maxwell, 1993, p. 1.
170. R. Hoedmaekers, 'Human gene patents: core issues in a multi-layered debate', Medicine, Health Care and Philosophy, 2001, vol. 4, pp. 211-221.
171. Convention on the Grant of European Patents (European Patent Convention), 10th edn, European Patent Office, 2000, Article 52, p. 72 (my italics). Available online: http://www.european-patent-office.org.
172. T. Dickenson (Under Secretary, US Department of Commerce), FDCH Congressional Testimony (Patenting Inventions Developed from the Genome Project), 13 July 2000.
173. V. Griffith, 'Call for tougher standards', Financial Times (FT.com), 13 July 2000, http://news.ft.com/home/uk/.
174. See, for example, Anon, 'Churches say no to gene patenting', Christian Century, 13 September 2000, vol. 117, pp. 899-901.
175. R. Scott (Incyte Genomics), FDCH Congressional Testimony (Patenting Inventions Developed from the Genome Project), 13 July 2000.
176. J. Borger, 'Rush to patent genes stalls cures for disease', Guardian, 15 December 1999, http://www.guardian.co.uk/Archive/Article/0,4273,3941983,00.html.
177. HUGO, 'Statement on patenting issues related to early release of raw sequence data', 1997, http://www.gene.ucl.ac.uk/hugo/ip1997.htm, p. 1. My italics.
178. M. Heller and R. Eisenberg, 'Can patents deter innovation? The anticommons in biomedical research', Science, 5 January 1998, vol. 280, pp. 698-701.
179. RAFI, 'Call to dialogue or call to 911?' (online article), 2 November 2000, http://www.rafi.org.
180. See B. Brecher, 'Surrogacy, liberal individualism and the moral climate', in J. Evans (ed.), Moral Philosophy and Contemporary Problems, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1987, p. 184.
181. S. Sheldon and S. Wilkinson, 'Female genital mutilation and cosmetic surgery: regulating non-therapeutic body modification', Bioethics, 1997, vol. 12, p. 282.
182. M. Radin, Contested Commodities, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press, 1996, pp. 57-58.