Race and laboratory norms: The critical insights of Julian Herman Lewis (1891-1989)

ISIS

Volumn 105, Issue 3, 2014, Pages 477-507

  Crenner, Christopher ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANCESTRY GROUP; ART; HISTORY; HUMAN; LABORATORY PERSONNEL; RACISM;

CONTINENTAL POPULATION GROUPS; HISTORY, 19TH CENTURY; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; HUMANS; MEDICAL LABORATORY PERSONNEL; RACISM;

EID: 84907435626     PISSN: 00211753     EISSN: 15456994     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1086/678168     Document Type: Article

References (200)

1. Georges Canguilhem, On the Normal and the Pathological (1943), trans. Carolyn R. Fawcett (London: Reidel, 1978)
2. Michel Foucault, The Birth of the Clinic (1963), trans. A. M. Sheridan Smith (New York: Pantheon, 1973), p. 35
3. Mary Tiles, “The Normal and the Pathological: The Concept of a Scientific Medicine,” British Journal for the Philosophy of Science, 1993, 44:729-742.
4. Lundy Braun, “Spirometry, Measurement, and Race in the Nineteenth Century,” Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences, 2005, 60:135-169.
5. John Harley Warner, The Therapeutic Perspective: Medical Practice, Knowledge, and Identity in America, 1820-1885 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press, 1986), pp. 86-91.
6. J. Rosser Matthews, Quantification and the Quest for Medical Certainty (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton Univ. Press, 1995), pp. 86-130
7. Theodore M. Porter, Trust in Numbers: The Pursuit of Objectivity in Science and Public Life (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton Univ. Press, 1995), pp. 29-32.
8. John Higham, Strangers in the Land: Patterns of American Nativism, 1860-1925 (1955; New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers Univ. Press, 2002)
9. Leon Litwack, Trouble in Mind: Black Southerners in the Age of Jim Crow (New York: Knopf, 1998)
10. Thomas C. Holt, The Problem of Race in the Twenty-First Century: The Nathan I. Huggins Lectures (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press, 2000).
11. Julian Herman Lewis, The Biology of the Negro (Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press, 1942)
12. W. Montague Cobb, “Book Review: The Biology of the Negro,” Crisis, 1942, 49:394.
13. Elazar Barkan, The Retreat of Scientific Racism: Changing Concepts of Race in Britain and the United States between the World Wars (New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1992)
14. John P. Jackson, and Nadine M. Weidman, Race, Racism, and Science: Social Impact and Interaction (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers Univ. Press, 2006), pp. 129-161.
15. Key events in Lewis’s professional life are documented in the Minutes of the Board of Trustees, University of Chicago, Special Collections Research Center, University of Chicago Library. The editorial and publication history of The Biology of the Negro is documented in records of the University of Chicago Press. The book sold 449 copies during its first year of publication and tailed off gradually, selling a total of 1,256 copies by 1951, when the press bound an additional 75 from the first printing and destroyed the remainder: “Short Stock Report,” University of Chicago Press, 21 Sept. 1951; and George Moeller, note, 14 Nov. 1951: Box 292, Folder 13, University of Chicago Press Records, University of Chicago Library.
16. Steven Epstein, “Bodily Differences and Collective Identities: The Politics of Gender and Race in Biomedical Research in the United States,” Body and Society, 2004, 10:183-203
17. Veronika Lipphardt and Jörg Niewöhner, “Producing Difference in an Age of Biosociality: Biohistorical Narratives, Standardisation, and Resistance as Translations,” Science, Technology, and Innovation Studies, 2007, 3:45-65
18. Braun, “Spirometry, Measurement, and Race in the Nineteenth Century” (cit. n. 2)
19. Nancy Leys Stepan, “Race and Gender: The Role of Analogy in Science,” in The “Racial” Economy of Science: Toward a Democratic Future, ed. Sandra Harding (Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press, 1993), pp. 359-376
20. Ian Hacking, “Why Race Still Matters,” Daedalus, 2005, 134:102-116.
21. Maurice Bleifeld, “Julian Herman Lewis, 1891-1989,” in Notable Scientists from 1900 to the Present, ed. Brigham Narins (Farmington Hills, Mich.: Gale, 2001), pp. 1385-1386.
22. Richard D. Sears, Berea Connections: An Encyclopedia of Genealogy and Local History Related to Berea, Kentucky, from 1854 to 1900 (Berea, Ky.: Hutchins Library, Berea College, 1996), pp. 93-134.
23. “Along the Color Line” [editorial], Crisis, 1913, 6:111-118.
24. For background on Lewis’s parents I draw on Samantha J. Lambert, Research Assistant to the College Archivist, Berea College, to Christopher Crenner, 13 Sept. 2010. Summaries of biographical details appear in Vivian Ovelton Sammons, Blacks in Science and Medicine (New York: Hemisphere, 1990)
25. John McMurray Lansden, A History of the City of Cairo, Illinois (Chicago: Donnelley, 1910)
26. Bleifeld, “Julian Herman Lewis, 1891-1989” (cit. n. 8).
27. For the publication see Julian Herman Lewis, “Inhibitory Action of Heterologous Protein Mixtures on Anaphylaxis,” Journal of Infectious Diseases, 1915, 16:241-258.
28. Regarding the Ricketts Prize see Minutes of the Board of Trustees, University of Chicago, 14 Sept. 1915, Vol. 9, p. 171, University of Chicago Library.
29. Regarding the promotion to associate professor see Minutes of the Board of Trustees, University of Chicago, 11 Aug. 1932, Vol. 22, p. 222, University of Chicago Library.
30. On Wells see Esmond R. Long, Harry Gideon Wells, 1875-1943: A Biographical Memoir (Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences, 1951), www.nap.edu/html/biomems/hwells.pdf (accessed 6 Jan. 2012).
31. Todd L. Savitt and Morton F. Goldberg, “Herrick’s 1910 Report of Sickle Cell Anemia: The Rest of the Story,” Journal of the American Medical Association, 1989, 261:266-271
32. Thomas N. Bonner, Medicine in Chicago, 1850-1950 (Madison, Wis.: American History Research Center, 1957), pp. 91-92. H. Gideon Wells to Dr. and Mrs. Lewis, 11 Dec. 1926, in the personal collection of Elise Gorun, Chicago; and Elise Gorun to Crenner, 5 Oct. 2011. Wells wrote a beautiful letter to Lewis’s parents to congratulate them on the accomplishments of their son following Lewis’s graduation: n.d., collection of Elise Gorun. There is no separate collection of Lewis’s faculty papers at the University of Chicago.
33. Julian Herman Lewis, “The Racial Distribution of Isohemagglutinin Groups,” J. Amer. Med. Assoc., 1922, 79:1422-1424
34. Ludwig Hektoen, “Isoagglutination of Human Corpuscles,” J. Infect. Dis., 1907, 4:297-303.
35. Susan E. Lederer, Flesh and Blood: Organ Transplantation and Blood Transfusion in Twentieth-Century America (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 2008), pp. 143-164
36. A. E. Mourant, Ada C. Kopec, and Kazimiera Domaniewska-Sobczak, The ABO Blood Groups: Comprehensive Tables and Maps of World Distribution (Oxford: Blackwell Scientific, 1958), pp. 193-194
37. Karl Landsteiner and Philip Levine, “On the Racial Distribution of Some Agglutinable Structures of Human Blood,” Journal of Immunology, 1929, 16:123-131.
38. Hektoen, “Isoagglutination of Human Corpuscles,” p. 298.
39. Warwick Anderson, “Hybridity, Race, and Science: The Voyage of the Zaca, 1934-1935,” Isis, 2012, 103:229-253.
40. Lewis, “Racial Distribution of Isohemagglutinin Groups” (cit. n. 14), p. 1423.
41. Paul Lawrence Farber, Mixing Races: From Scientific Racism to Modern Evolutionary Ideas (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 2011)
42. George M. Fredrickson, The Black Image in the White Mind: The Debate on Afro-American Character and Destiny, 1817-1914 (Hanover, N.H.: Wesleyan Univ. Press, 1987).
43. The sociologist Allison Davis, also later at the University of Chicago, did early research using the evidence of blood groups to critique concepts of race; see Allison Davis, “The Distribution of the Blood-Groups and Its Bearing on the Concept of Race,” Sociological Review, 1935, a27:19-34.
44. Melville J. Herskovits, The American Negro: A Study in Racial Crossing (New York: Knopf, 1928)
45. John Gershenhorn, Melville J. Herskovits and the Racial Politics of Knowledge (Lincoln: Univ. Nebraska Press, 2004).
46. “Negro in Higher Education: 1921-22” [editorial], Crisis, 1922, 24:108-110.
47. W. Montague Cobb, The Laboratory of Anatomy and Physical Anthropology of Howard University (Washington, D.C., 1936), p. 78.
48. Prevailing views of racial weakness could also twist revealingly to accommodate the contrary example of reported low incidences of cancer among blacks; see Keith Wailoo, How Cancer Crossed the Color Line (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 2011), pp. 40-63.
49. Charles Victor Roman, American Civilization and the Negro: The Afro-American in Relation to National Progress (Philadelphia: Davis, 1916), p. 335.
50. J. Andrew Mendelsohn, “Medicine and the Making of Bodily Inequality in Twentieth-Century Europe,” in Heredity and Infection: The History of Disease Transmission, ed. Jean-Paul Gaudillie`re and Ilana Löwy (London: Routledge, 2001), pp. 21-79.
51. Gershenhorn, Melville J. Herskovits and the Racial Politics of Knowledge (cit. n. 18), pp. 43-45
52. Herskovits, American Negro (cit. n. 18).
53. For a review of scientific theories of racial mixing see Farber, Mixing Races (cit. n. 17).
54. Regarding Lewis’s role in directing pathology and pathological training at Provident Hospital see Minutes of the Board of Trustees, University of Chicago, 13 July 1933, Vol. 23, p. 107, 12 July 1934, Vol. 24, p. 109, University of Chicago Library.
55. Vanessa Northington Gamble, Making a Place for Ourselves: The Black Hospital Movement, 1920-1945 (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1995)
56. Esmond R. Long, A History of American Pathology (Springfield, Ill.: Thomas, 1962).
57. Robert E. Kohler, From Medical Chemistry to Biochemistry: The Making of a Biomedical Discipline (New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1982).
58. Stanley Joel Reiser, Medicine and the Reign of Technology (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1978)
59. Joel Howell, Technology in the Hospital: Transforming Patient Care in the Early Twentieth Century (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1996).
60. Olga Amsterdamska, “Chemistry in the Clinic: The Research Career of Donald Dexter Van Slyke,” in Molecularizing Biology and Medicine: New Practices and Alliances, 1910s-1970s, ed. Soraya de Chadarevian and Harmke Kamminga (Amsterdam: Harwood Academic, 1998), pp. 47-82.
61. Maxwell W. Wintrobe, Hematology, the Blossoming of a Science: A Story of Inspiration and Effort (Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger, 1985)
62. Keith Wailoo, Drawing Blood: Technology and Disease in Twentieth-Century America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1997).
63. Soraya de Chadarevian and Harmke Kamminga, “Introduction,” in Molecularizing Biology and Medicine, ed. de Chadarevian and Kamminga, pp. 1-15.
64. On the increased role for hospital laboratories by the 1920s see Harry Gauss, “The Evolution of Clinical Pathology,” Journal of Laboratory and Clinical Medicine, 1923, 8:703-719
65. Christopher W. Crenner, “Professional Measurement: Quantification of Health and Disease in American Medical Practice, 1880-1920” (Ph.D. diss., Harvard Univ., 1993).
66. Kohler, From Medical Chemistry to Biochemistry (cit. n. 24), p. 229
67. Gauss, “Evolution of Clinical Pathology.”
68. Charles E. Simon, A Laboratory Syllabus of Clinical Pathology (Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger, 1919)
69. Russell Landram Haden, Clinical Laboratory Methods (St. Louis: Mosby, 1923)
70. Edwin E. Osgood, A Textbook of Laboratory Diagnosis: With Clinical Applications for Practitioners and Students (Philadelphia: Blakiston, 1931)
71. Rutherford B. Hayes Gradwohl, Clinical Laboratory Methods and Diagnosis: A Textbook on Laboratory Procedures with Their Interpretation (St. Louis: Mosby, 1935).
72. Edwin E. Osgood, “Hemoglobin, Color Index, Saturation Index, and Volume Index Standards: Redeterminations Based on the Findings in One Hundred and Thirty-Six Healthy Young Men,” Archives of Internal Medicine, 1926, 37:685-706, on p. 705 the complaint about the origins of the standards usually quoted is on p. 689.
73. For further complaints about antiquated figures and support for Osgood’s program see also H. C. Gram, “The Composition and Physical Properties of Normal Human Blood: A Compilation of Values from the Literature,” American Journal of Medical Sciences, 1924, 168:511-526
74. “Normal Blood Counts” [editorial], J. Amer. Med. Assoc., 1927, 88:2037.
75. Edwin E. Osgood, A Textbook of Laboratory Diagnosis, with Clinical Applications for Practitioners and Students, 2nd ed. (Philadelphia: Blakiston, 1935)
76. Osgood, A Textbook of Laboratory Diagnosis, with Clinical Applications for Practitioners and Students, 3rd ed. (Philadelphia: Blakiston, 1940)
77. Rutherford B. H. Gradwohl, Clinical Laboratory Methods and Diagnosis: A Textbook on Laboratory Procedures and Their Interpretation, 5th ed. (St. Louis: Mosby, 1956).
78. Charles C. Bass and Foster M. Johns, Practical Clinical Laboratory Diagnosis (New York: Rebman, 1917), p. 52
79. Ben K. Harned, “The Sugar Content of Blood,” Journal of Biological Chemistry, 1925, 65:555-560
80. Roger Sylvester Morris, Clinical Laboratory Diagnosis: Designed for the Use of Students and Practitioners of Medicine (New York: Appleton, 1923), p. 256.
81. Osgood, “Hemoglobin, Color Index, Saturation Index, and Volume Index Standards” (cit. n. 28), pp. 689-697
82. Edwin E. Osgood, “Normal Hematologic Standards,” Arch. Intern. Med., 1935, 56:849-863.
83. Osgood, “Normal Hematologic Standards,” p. 850.
84. Epstein, “Bodily Differences and Collective Identities” (cit. n. 7)
85. Steven Epstein, Inclusion: The Politics of Difference in Medical Research (Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press, 2007).
86. C. PetitClerc and H. E. Solberg, “Approved Recommendation (1987) on the Theory of Reference Values, Pt. 2: Selection of Individuals for the Production of Reference Values,” Journal of Clinincal Chemistry and Clinical Biochemistry, 1987, 25:639-644.
87. F. D. Weidman and F. W. Sunderman, “The Normal Blood Cholesterol Figures for Man and for the Lower Animals,” Archives of Dermatology and Syphilology, 1925, 12:679-690
88. Maxwell M. Wintrobe, “Hemoglobin Standards in Normal Men,” Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine, 1929, 26:848-851
89. J. H. Musser and Willard R. Wirth, “Anemia in the South,” Annals of Clinical Medicine, 1927, 5:861-869
90. Louis Hamman and I. I. Hirschman, “Studies on Blood Sugar,” Arch. Intern. Med., 1917, 20:761-808.
91. For a few exceptions in which the investigators state or imply that measurements on female subjects have a general, unqualified applicability see M. Elizabeth Downing, “Blood Pressure of Normal Girls from Three to Sixteen Years of Age,” American Journal of Diseases of Children, 1947, 73:293-316
92. Eldon M. Boyd, “A Differential Lipid Analysis of Blood Plasma in Normal Young Women by Micro-Oxidative Methods,” J. Biol. Chem., 1933, 101:323-336
93. Isadore Rosen and Frances Krasnow, “Comparative Studies on Blood Cholesterol in Women,” American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 1927, 14:321-329
94. Grace MacLeod, Elizabeth E. Crofts, and Francis G. Benedict, “The Basal Metabolism of Some Orientals,” American Journal of Physiology, 1925, 73:449-462. That a majority of these investigators were women is notable.
95. Herman John Bollinger, Manual of Laboratory Diagnosis (Baltimore: Medical Standard, 1919), p. 201 (listing red cell values from men as a standard); and Gradwohl, Clinical Laboratory Methods and Diagnosis, 5th ed. (cit. n. 29), p. 210 (using Osgood’s data).
96. W. Scott Polland and Arthur L. Bloomfield, “Normal Standards of Gastric Function,” Journal of Clinical Investigation, 1931, 9:651-658
97. Francis G. Benedict, “Old Age and Basal Metabolism,” New England Journal of Medicine, 1935, 212:1111-1122.
98. This generalization is based on examination of hundreds of twentieth-century hospital patient records from the period in the following collections: Archives of the New York Hospital, Medical Center Archives, New York-Presbyterian/Weill Cornell, New York; Patient Records of the Massachusetts General Hospital, Department of Medical Records, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston
99. Eleanor Taylor Bell Hospital, Patient Records, Archives of the University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas. Published forms carrying normal values were available, but the information was not integrated into the laboratory reports, as it would be decades later.
100. C. N. B. Camac, “Hospital and Ward Clinical Laboratories,” J. Amer. Med. Assoc., 1900, 35:219-227
101. Henry L. Elsner, “On the Value to the Physician of Modern Methods of Diagnosis,” Boston Medical and Surgical Journal, 1902, 146:101-108.
102. Julian Love, “Correspondence: Blood Chemistry Values,” J. Amer. Med. Assoc., 1931, 96:884 (quotation)
103. Horace Gray, “Blood Sugar Standards, Pt. I: Normal and Diabetic Persons,” Arch. Intern. Med., 1923, 31:241-258.
104. Gray reports the advantage that the figures in his “normal range appear… to be surprisingly conveniently schematic” (p. 248). For a nice example modeling the proper relationship between patient data and normal values see A. McGehee Harvey and James Bordley, Differential Diagnosis: The Interpretation of Clinical Evidence (Philadelphia: Saunders, 1956). Harvey and Bordley provide reams of quantitative laboratory data on 102 individual patient cases with no interpretive apparatus; not until pages 631-633 do they append the table of “Laboratory Values of Clinical Importance (Adult),” which gives “ranges within which 90% of normal persons are expected to fall.” Only a compulsive reader would flip back and forth to match the many numbers to the normal ranges. You were supposed to memorize the commonly used ones.
105. Eaton M. MacKay and Lois Lockard MacKay, “The Concentration of Urea in the Blood of Normal Individuals,” J. Clin. Invest., 1927, 4:295-306
106. Isadore Rosen and Frances Krasnow, “A Note on the Calcium Content of the Serum of Normal Adults,” J. Lab. Clin. Med., 1926, 12:157-158
107. Gray, “Blood Sugar Standards, Pt. I.”
108. Roland Cummings and George Piness, “A Study of Blood Sugar: A Comparison of the Tolerance for Glucose in Diabetic and Normal Subjects,” Arch. Intern. Med., 1917, 19:777-785
109. Benjamin Kramer and Frederick F. Tisdall, “The Direct Quantitative Determination of Sodium, Potassium, Calcium, and Magnesium in Small Amounts of Blood,” J. Biol. Chem., 1921, 48:223-232
110. Harned, “Sugar Content of Blood” (cit. n. 30), p. 559.
111. Maxwell M. Wintrobe, “The Direct Calculation of the Volume and Hemoglobin Content of the Erythrocyte,” American Journal of Clinical Pathology, 1931, 1:147-165.
112. John P. Peters and Donald D. Van Slyke, Quantitative Clinical Chemistry, Vol. 1: Interpretations (Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, 1931), p. 337
113. MacKay and MacKay, “Concentration of Urea in the Blood of Normal Individuals” (cit. n. 41). Peters and Van Slyke reported only the data, although MacKay and MacKay gave detailed analysis, including standard deviations.
114. B. Y. Glassberg, “The Blood Sugar of Normal Fasting Persons,” Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med., 1931, 28:889-893
115. Henry J. John, “A Study of 22,808 Blood Sugar Estimations,” Annals of Internal Medicine, 1927, 1:470-481.
116. Glassberg suggested the easily remembered cutoffs of 75 and 85 mg/dl and reported that this range enclosed 63 percent of all values without reference to standard deviation. John catalogued the percentage of observations within each decile, also without noting standard deviations, and proposed that cutoffs for what was normal were physiologically defined by glycosuria.
117. Edwin E. Osgood et al., “Total Differential and Absolute Leukocyte Counts and Sedimentation Rates Determined for Healthy Persons Nineteen Years of Age or Over,” Arch. Intern. Med., 1939, 64:105-120
118. T. Addis and C. K. Watanabe, “The Rate of Urea Excretion, II: The Rate of Excretion of Administered Urea in Young Healthy Adults on a Constant Diet,” J. Biol. Chem., 1927, 27:249-266
119. Musser and Wirth, “Anemia in the South” (cit. n. 34); W. Ingersoll, “Hemoglobin Values in Normal Adults over a Period of Time,” J. Lab. Clin. Med., 1935, 21:787-779
120. Rosen and Krasnow, “Note on the Calcium Content of the Serum of Normal Adults” (cit. n. 41).
121. Thomas J. Ward, Jr., Black Physicians in the Jim Crow South (Fayetteville: Univ. Arkansas Press, 2003).
122. Wintrobe, “Hemoglobin Standards in Normal Men” (cit. n. 34).
123. E.g., a study at the University of Kansas relying on medical students and physicians also included “hospital employees,” who might well have been black: Russell L. Haden, “The Normal Hemoglobin Standard,” J. Amer. Med. Assoc., 1922, 79:1496-1497.
124. There are also notorious examples where investigators sought African-American subjects for hazardous and unpleasant studies, as discussed in Susan Lederer, Subjected to Science: Human Experimentation in America before the Second World War (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1995), pp. 120-124.
125. Hyman Morrison and W. R. Ohler, “A Study of the Blood Sugar Curves in Jewish and Non-Jewish Patients with No Apparent Glycogenic Disturbance,” Boston Med. Surg. J., 1923, 188:852-854.
126. For examples see New York Hospital Surgical Records, Volume “Chronic Salpingitis, Volume V, First Division,” Feb. 1922-May 1924, Case 249685, Archives of the New York Hospital
127. Eleanor Taylor Bell Hospital, Patient Records, Gynecology Service, (1910) Case 1001
128. ENT Service, Cases 2251-3371, Vol. 1 (1914), Archives of the University of Kansas Medical Center (the volume lists five patients as “colored,” with four of the five having results of laboratory analysis in their patient charts).
129. Roy H. Turner, “The Pathologic Physiology of Pellagra, I: Tabulated Clinical and Physiologic Data,” J. Clin. Invest., 1931, 10:61-70
130. Turner and Virginia Blanchard, “The Pathologic Physiology of Pellagra, II: The Serum Albumin and Globulin,”
131. C. Lyndon Harrell, “Blood-Serum Calcium in the Negro: A Laboratory Study,” American Review of Tuberculosis, 1923, 19:350-352.
132. Peters and Van Slyke, Quantitative Clinical Chemistry, Vol. 1: Interpretations (cit. n. 44), pp. 22, 109-240.
133. Victor C. Myers and Helen M. Eddy, “The Hemoglobin Content of Human Blood,” J. Lab. Clin. Med., 1939, 24:502-511.
134. Yet studies claiming evidence of such differences were available. Peters and Van Slyke omitted from their discussion a publication, listed in their bibliography, that claimed to provide contradictory evidence on race: Morris Steggerda and Francis G. Benedict, “The Basal Metabolism of Some Browns and Blacks in Jamaica,” Amer. J. Physiol., 1928, 85:621-632.
135. Canguilhem, On the Normal and the Pathological (cit. n. 1)
136. Ian Hacking, The Taming of Chance (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1990), pp. 164-166
137. Tiles, “Normal and the Pathological” (cit. n. 1) (on “normal” as both optimal and average).
138. Fred Boerner, “Standard Normals and Normal Ranges in Hematology,” Amer. J. Clin. Pathol., 1931, 1:391-398
139. C. F. Nelson, “The Hemoglobin Standard,” Journal of the Kansas Medical Society, 1931, 32:162-164
140. Daniel G. Brinton, “The Factors of Heredity and Environment in Man,” American Anthropologist, 1898, 11:271-277.
141. Frederick L. Hoffman, Race Traits and Tendencies of the American Negro (New York: Macmillan, 1896)
142. Fredrickson, Black Image in the White Mind (cit. n. 17)
143. Braun, “Spirometry, Measurement, and Race in the Nineteenth Century” (cit. n. 2).
144. See a fascinating contemporary attack on the problem in Harry Bakwin, “The Negro Infant,” Human Biology, 1932, 4:1-33.
145. Jackson and Weidman, Race, Racism, and Science (cit. n. 5), pp. 129-161.
146. For details on the social sciences see the discussion in Daryl Michael Scott, Contempt and Pity: Social Policy and the Image of the Damaged Black Psyche, 1880-1996 (Chapel Hill: Univ. North Carolina Press, 1997).
147. Lewis, Biology of the Negro (cit. n. 5), pp. 299.
148. F. William Sunderman and Frederick Boerner, Normal Values in Clinical Medicine (Philadelphia: Saunders, 1949).
149. Sunderman, “Studies of Serum Electrolytes, VII: The Total Base and Protein Components of the Serum,” J. Clin. Invest., 1931, 9:615-633
150. Sunderman, A Time to Remember: An Autobiography (Philadelphia: Privately printed with Institute for Clinical Sciences, 1998)
151. Frederick L. Kiechle, “F. William Sunderman, Sr., M.D., Ph.D., Sc.D.,” Archives of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, 2004, 128:848-849.
152. Sunderman and Boerner, Normal Values in Clinical Medicine, pp. 690.
153. Douglas Martin, “F. William Sunderman, Doctor and Scientist, Dies at 104,” New York Times, 17 Mar. 2003, p. 7
154. Kiechle, “F. William Sunderman, Sr., M.D., Ph.D., Sc.D.” Sunderman and Boerner, Normal Values in Clinical Medicine, pp. 47-48 (cf. p. 375, ref. 377).
155. For Ashman’s data see Richard Ashman, “An Electrocardiographic Study of Caucasians and Negros,” Tri-State Medical Journal, 1941, 13:2686-2688
156. Sunderman and Boerner, Normal Values in Clinical Medicine, pp. 14-15.
157. Roger S. Hubbard, “The Fructose Content of Spinal Fluid,” J. Biol. Chem., 1937, 119:647-661
158. Sunderman and Boerner, Normal Values in Clinical Medicine, pp. 316-318 (constituents of cerebral spinal fluid), 467 (“fundamental hue” of normal skin).
159. Sunderman and Boerner, Normal Values in Clinical Medicine, pp. 206-208.
160. Lewis, Biology of the Negro (cit. n. 5), pp. 97 (“indefinite and uncertain”), 96, 253.
161. Jackson and Weidman, Race, Racism, and Science (cit. n. 5)
162. Lesley M. Rankin-Hill and Michael L. Blakey, “W. Montague Cobb: Physical Anthropologist, Anatomist, and Activist,” in African-American Pioneers in Anthropology, ed. Ira E. Harrison and Faye V. Harrison (Chicago: Univ. Illinois Press, 1999), pp. 101-136.
163. Cobb, Laboratory of Anatomy and Physical Anthropology of Howard University (cit. n. 20), p. 56
164. Cobb, “Book Review: The Biology of the Negro” (cit. n. 5)
165. W. Montague Cobb, “Physical Anthropology of the American Negro,” American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 1942, 29:113-223.
166. Herskovits, American Negro (cit. n. 18
167. Gershenhorn, Melville J. Herskovits and the Racial Politics of Knowledge (cit. n. 18).
168. For Lewis’s references see Lewis, Biology of the Negro (cit. n. 5), pp. 11.
169. Lewis, Biology of the Negro, p. 154.
170. Cobb, “Physical Anthropology of the American Negro” (cit. n. 71), p. 156.
171. Frank Spencer, “Ales Hrdlicˇka, M.D., 1869-1943: A Chronicle of the Life and Work of an American Physical Anthropologist” (Ph.D. diss., Univ. Michigan, 1979).
172. Wells to G. J. Laing, University of Chicago Press, 14 Aug. 1939, University of Chicago Press Records, Box 292, Folder 13, University of Chicago Library.
173. Julian H. Lewis to Ludvig Hektoen [copy of letter to Col. Albert A. Sprague], 17 May 1945, Ludvig Hektoen Papers, Box 3, Folder 7 “Correspondence with Julian H. Lewis,” University of Chicago Library. For university documents pertaining to Lewis’s dismissal see Records of the Committee on Instruction and Research, 25 July 1944, Dr. A. C. Bachmeyer, 15 Aug. 1944, Mr. H. G. Deines, University of Chicago Library. There is a variety of circumstantial evidence about the ouster of Lewis from his faculty position, reflected in part in the accounts by Elise Gorun and family members. The circumstances suggest that Lewis met with significant opposition based on racial prejudice.
174. Lewis to Sprague, 30 Apr. 1945; and Sprague to Lewis, 4 May 1945: Hektoen Papers, Box 3, Folder 7 “Correspondence with Julian H. Lewis,” University of Chicago Library.
175. “Professional News” [editorial], Journal of the National Medical Association, 1945, 37:171-173
176. “Eva Overton Lewis” [obituary], Chicago Daily Tribune, 2 Nov. 1945
177. Bleifeld, “Julian Herman Lewis, 1891-1989” (cit. n. 8).
178. Julian H. Lewis, “Deantigenated Beef Blood Plasma as a Possible Substitute for Human Blood Plasma,” Science, 1943, 98:371-372
179. Lewis to Hektoen, 12 July 1943, Hektoen Papers, University of Chicago Library.
180. M. F. Ashley Montagu, Man’s Most Dangerous Myth: The Fallacy of Race (New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 1942)
181. Michelle Brattain, “Race, Racism, and Antiracism: UNESCO and the Politics of Presenting Science to the Postwar Public,” American Historical Review, 2007, 112:1386-1413.
182. M. F. Ashley Montagu, “Review of The Biology of the Negro,” Amer. Anthropol., 1942, 44:708-709
183. Jackson and Weidman, Race, Racism, and Science (cit. n. 5), pp. 169-170
184. “The Biology of the Negro, by Julian Herman Lewis,” Southern Surgeon, 1942, 11:808
185. “Book Reviews: The Biology of the Negro, by Julian Herman Lewis,” J. Nat. Med. Assoc., 1942, 34:174-175.
186. “Short Stock Report,” 21 Sept. 1951 (cit. n. 6).
187. Canguilhem, On the Normal and the Pathological (cit. n. 1), pp. 99, 101, 168. In 1943, seemingly stable differences in the bodies of African natives demonstrated the deep, sustained effect of their milieu; while in 1963, the interchangeable effects of migration on Chinese in America and Americans in China demonstrated the malleability of bodily adaptation.
188. Hubbard, “Fructose Content of Spinal Fluid” (cit. n. 66)
189. Herman Brown, “The Mineral Content of Human Skin,” J. Biol. Chem., 1927, 75:789-794
190. Dempsie B. Morrison and Thomas P. Nash, “The Copper Content of Infant Livers,”, 1930, 88:479-483.
191. Eleanor M. Hafkesbring, Catherine E. Drawe, and R. Ashman, “Children’s Electrocardiograms: Measurements for One Hundred Normal Children,” Amer. J. Dis. Children, 1937, 53:1457-1469
192. J. K. Bullock, “The Physiological Variations in Inorganic Blood Phosphorus Content at the Different Age Periods,”
193. Katharine K. Merritt and Leonard T. Davidson, “The Blood during the First Year of Life,”, 1933, 46:990-1010.
194. Jennifer Ritterhouse, Growing Up Jim Crow: The Racial Socialization of Black and White Southern Children, 1890-1940 (Chapel Hill: Univ. North Carolina Press, 2006)
195. Grace Elizabeth Hale, Making Whiteness: The Culture of Segregation in the South, 1890-1940 (New York: Pantheon, 1998).
196. Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute, Defining, Establishing, and Verifying Reference Intervals in the Clinical Laboratory: Approved Guidelines, 3rd ed. (Wayne, Pa.: Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute, 2008).
197. But see that the tension between pooling and segregating persists: E. Karita et al., “CLSI-Derived Hematology and Biochemistry Reference Intervals for Healthy Adults in Eastern and Southern Africa,” Public Library of Science One, 2009, 4:4401.
198. Alexandra Shields et al., “The Use of Race Variables in Genetic Studies of Complex Traits and the Goal of Reducing Health Disparities: A Transdisciplinary Perspective,” American Psychologist, 2005, 60:77-103.
199. W. E. Burghardt Du Bois, The Philadelphia Negro: A Social Study (Philadelphia: Univ. Pennsylvania, 1899), pp. 147-163.
200. Roman, American Civilization and the Negro (cit. n. 21), p. 335.