Spirometry, measurement, and race in the nineteenth century

Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences

Volumn 60, Issue 2, 2005, Pages 135-169

  Braun, Lundy ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

Benjamin A. Gould; Frederick Hoffman; John Hutchinson; Race; Spirometry; U.s. Sanitary Commission; Vital capacity

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; CAUCASIAN; HISTORY; HUMAN; LUNG VOLUME; MALE; NEGRO; REFERENCE VALUE; SOLDIER; SPIROMETRY; UNITED KINGDOM; UNITED STATES;

AFRICAN CONTINENTAL ANCESTRY GROUP; ENGLAND; EUROPEAN CONTINENTAL ANCESTRY GROUP; HISTORY, 19TH CENTURY; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; HUMANS; LUNG VOLUME MEASUREMENTS; MALE; MILITARY PERSONNEL; REFERENCE VALUES; SPIROMETRY; UNITED STATES;

EID: 17144395635     PISSN: 00225045     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/jhmas/jri021     Document Type: Article

References (153)

1. Andrew J. Ghio, Robert O. Crapo, and C. Gregory Elliott, "Reference Equations Used to Predict Pulmonary Function," Chest, 1990, 97, 400-3.
2. American Thoracic Society, "Lung Function Testing: Selection of Reference Values and Interpretative Strategies," Am. Rev. Respir. Dis., 1991, 144, 1202-18.
3. As this article argues, the use of black and white as terms to describe and categorize people is problematic. Classification systems change over time both in terms of content and meaning, and they vary widely in different geographical contexts. In the nineteenth-century literature analyzed for this article, the category of white referred almost exclusively to people whose ancestors were from Europe in the recent past. The primary distinction among whites was between those who were foreign-born and U.S.-born. A variety of terms-black, colored, Negro-were used to describe the descendants of slaves or freedmen of African ancestry. Recognizing that the categories of white and black are constructed, and indeed showing how such a binary has been constructed historically, I nevertheless use them throughout this text.
4. John V. Pickstone, ed., Medical Innovations in Historical Perspective (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1992).
5. Keith Wailoo, Drawing Blood: Technology and Disease Identity in Twentieth-Century America (Baltimore, Md.: John Hopkins University Press, 1997).
6. Asa Briggs, The Age of Improvement, 1783-1867 (New York: Longman, 2000); Friedrich Engels, The Condition of the Working Class in England (1845; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993); E. J. Hobsbawm, The Age of Revolution, 1789-1848 (New York: New American Library, 1962); E. P. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class (New York: Vintage Books, 1963);
7. Asa Briggs, The Age of Improvement, 1783-1867 (New York: Longman, 2000); Friedrich Engels, The Condition of the Working Class in England (1845; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993); E. J. Hobsbawm, The Age of Revolution, 1789-1848 (New York: New American Library, 1962); E. P. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class (New York: Vintage Books, 1963);
8. Asa Briggs, The Age of Improvement, 1783-1867 (New York: Longman, 2000); Friedrich Engels, The Condition of the Working Class in England (1845; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993); E. J. Hobsbawm, The Age of Revolution, 1789-1848 (New York: New American Library, 1962); E. P. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class (New York: Vintage Books, 1963);
9. Asa Briggs, The Age of Improvement, 1783-1867 (New York: Longman, 2000); Friedrich Engels, The Condition of the Working Class in England (1845; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993); E. J. Hobsbawm, The Age of Revolution, 1789-1848 (New York: New American Library, 1962); E. P. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class (New York: Vintage Books, 1963);
10. Mary Poovey, Making a Social Body: British Cultural Formation, 1830-1864 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995).
11. In The Condition of the Working Class in England, Engels remarks specifically on the problem of finding adults who were fit for military service, pp. 168, 208.
12. Ibid., pp. 107, 165.
13. Ian Hacking, "How Should We Do the History of Statistics?" in The Foucault Effect: Studies in Governmentality, ed. Graham Burchell, Colin Gordon, and Peter Miller (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991).
14. For a history of statistical thinking and debates on knowledge produced by numbers in the first half of the nineteenth century, see Victor L. Hilts, "Mis Exterendum, or, the Origins of the Statistical Society of London," Isis, 1978, 69, 21-43; Lawrence Goldman, "The Origins of British 'Social Science': Political Economy, Natural Science and Statistics," Historical J., 1983, 26, 587-616; Ian Hacking, "Biopower and the Avalanche of Printed Numbers," Humanities in Society, 1982, 5, 279-95; Theodore M. Porter, The Rise of Statistical Thinking, 1820-1900 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1985); Mary Poovey, "Figures of Arithmetic, Figures of Speech: The Discourse of Statistics in the 18305," Critical Inquiry, 1993, 19, 256-76; and Mary Poovey, A History of the Modern Fact: Problems of Knowledge in the Sciences of Wealth and Society (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998), pp. 307-28.
15. For a history of statistical thinking and debates on knowledge produced by numbers in the first half of the nineteenth century, see Victor L. Hilts, "Mis Exterendum, or, the Origins of the Statistical Society of London," Isis, 1978, 69, 21-43; Lawrence Goldman, "The Origins of British 'Social Science': Political Economy, Natural Science and Statistics," Historical J., 1983, 26, 587-616; Ian Hacking, "Biopower and the Avalanche of Printed Numbers," Humanities in Society, 1982, 5, 279-95; Theodore M. Porter, The Rise of Statistical Thinking, 1820-1900 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1985); Mary Poovey, "Figures of Arithmetic, Figures of Speech: The Discourse of Statistics in the 18305," Critical Inquiry, 1993, 19, 256-76; and Mary Poovey, A History of the Modern Fact: Problems of Knowledge in the Sciences of Wealth and Society (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998), pp. 307-28.
16. For a history of statistical thinking and debates on knowledge produced by numbers in the first half of the nineteenth century, see Victor L. Hilts, "Mis Exterendum, or, the Origins of the Statistical Society of London," Isis, 1978, 69, 21-43; Lawrence Goldman, "The Origins of British 'Social Science': Political Economy, Natural Science and Statistics," Historical J., 1983, 26, 587-616; Ian Hacking, "Biopower and the Avalanche of Printed Numbers," Humanities in Society, 1982, 5, 279-95; Theodore M. Porter, The Rise of Statistical Thinking, 1820-1900 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1985); Mary Poovey, "Figures of Arithmetic, Figures of Speech: The Discourse of Statistics in the 18305," Critical Inquiry, 1993, 19, 256-76; and Mary Poovey, A History of the Modern Fact: Problems of Knowledge in the Sciences of Wealth and Society (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998), pp. 307-28.
17. For a history of statistical thinking and debates on knowledge produced by numbers in the first half of the nineteenth century, see Victor L. Hilts, "Mis Exterendum, or, the Origins of the Statistical Society of London," Isis, 1978, 69, 21-43; Lawrence Goldman, "The Origins of British 'Social Science': Political Economy, Natural Science and Statistics," Historical J., 1983, 26, 587-616; Ian Hacking, "Biopower and the Avalanche of Printed Numbers," Humanities in Society, 1982, 5, 279-95; Theodore M. Porter, The Rise of Statistical Thinking, 1820-1900 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1985); Mary Poovey, "Figures of Arithmetic, Figures of Speech: The Discourse of Statistics in the 18305," Critical Inquiry, 1993, 19, 256-76; and Mary Poovey, A History of the Modern Fact: Problems of Knowledge in the Sciences of Wealth and Society (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998), pp. 307-28.
18. For a history of statistical thinking and debates on knowledge produced by numbers in the first half of the nineteenth century, see Victor L. Hilts, "Mis Exterendum, or, the Origins of the Statistical Society of London," Isis, 1978, 69, 21-43; Lawrence Goldman, "The Origins of British 'Social Science': Political Economy, Natural Science and Statistics," Historical J., 1983, 26, 587-616; Ian Hacking, "Biopower and the Avalanche of Printed Numbers," Humanities in Society, 1982, 5, 279-95; Theodore M. Porter, The Rise of Statistical Thinking, 1820-1900 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1985); Mary Poovey, "Figures of Arithmetic, Figures of Speech: The Discourse of Statistics in the 18305," Critical Inquiry, 1993, 19, 256-76; and Mary Poovey, A History of the Modern Fact: Problems of Knowledge in the Sciences of Wealth and Society (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998), pp. 307-28.
19. For a history of statistical thinking and debates on knowledge produced by numbers in the first half of the nineteenth century, see Victor L. Hilts, "Mis Exterendum, or, the Origins of the Statistical Society of London," Isis, 1978, 69, 21-43; Lawrence Goldman, "The Origins of British 'Social Science': Political Economy, Natural Science and Statistics," Historical J., 1983, 26, 587-616; Ian Hacking, "Biopower and the Avalanche of Printed Numbers," Humanities in Society, 1982, 5, 279-95; Theodore M. Porter, The Rise of Statistical Thinking, 1820-1900 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1985); Mary Poovey, "Figures of Arithmetic, Figures of Speech: The Discourse of Statistics in the 18305," Critical Inquiry, 1993, 19, 256-76; and Mary Poovey, A History of the Modern Fact: Problems of Knowledge in the Sciences of Wealth and Society (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998), pp. 307-28.
20. Poovey, Making a Social Body.
21. For an insightful historical analysis of the relationship between numerical representation, systematic knowledge, and what came to be the modern fact, see Poovey, A History of the Modern Fact.
22. E. A. Spriggs, "John Hutchinson, the Inventor of the Spirometer - His North Country Background, Life in London, and Scientific Achievements," Med. Hist., 1977, 21, 357-64;
23. Stanley Joel Reiser, Medicine and the Reign of Technology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978), pp. 91-95.
24. Karl E. Rothschuh, History of Physiology (Huntingdon, N.Y.: Robert E. Krieger, 1973), P. 172.
25. Thackrah provides no description or illustration of the instrument in his book. The OED equates the pulmometer with the spirometer.
26. C. Turner Thackrah, The Effects of Arts, Trades, and Professions, and of Civic States and Habits of Living, on Health and Longevity: with Suggestions for the Removal of Many of the Agents Which Produce Disease, and Shorten the Duration of Life, 2nd ed. (1832; Edinburgh and London: E. & S. Livingston, 1957); A. Meiklejohn, The Life, Work and Times of Charles Turner Thackrah, Surgeon and Apothecary of Leeds (1795-1833) (Edinburgh and London: E. & S. Livingston, 1957). Thackrah was one of a generation of liberal reformers, which included James Phillip Kay and Edwin Chadwick, who for various reasons were anxious about the "condition of England" in the 18305 and 18405, most especially as it concerned the physical and moral circumstances of the industrial working class. For Thackrah's importance in the field of occupational health, see George Rosen, The History of Miners' Diseases: A Medical and Social Interpretation (New York: Schuman's, 1943), pp. 200-6.
27. C. Turner Thackrah, The Effects of Arts, Trades, and Professions, and of Civic States and Habits of Living, on Health and Longevity: with Suggestions for the Removal of Many of the Agents Which Produce Disease, and Shorten the Duration of Life, 2nd ed. (1832; Edinburgh and London: E. & S. Livingston, 1957); A. Meiklejohn, The Life, Work and Times of Charles Turner Thackrah, Surgeon and Apothecary of Leeds (1795-1833) (Edinburgh and London: E. & S. Livingston, 1957). Thackrah was one of a generation of liberal reformers, which included James Phillip Kay and Edwin Chadwick, who for various reasons were anxious about the "condition of England" in the 18305 and 18405, most especially as it concerned the physical and moral circumstances of the industrial working class. For Thackrah's importance in the field of occupational health, see George Rosen, The History of Miners' Diseases: A Medical and Social Interpretation (New York: Schuman's, 1943), pp. 200-6.
28. C. Turner Thackrah, The Effects of Arts, Trades, and Professions, and of Civic States and Habits of Living, on Health and Longevity: with Suggestions for the Removal of Many of the Agents Which Produce Disease, and Shorten the Duration of Life, 2nd ed. (1832; Edinburgh and London: E. & S. Livingston, 1957); A. Meiklejohn, The Life, Work and Times of Charles Turner Thackrah, Surgeon and Apothecary of Leeds (1795-1833) (Edinburgh and London: E. & S. Livingston, 1957). Thackrah was one of a generation of liberal reformers, which included James Phillip Kay and Edwin Chadwick, who for various reasons were anxious about the "condition of England" in the 18305 and 18405, most especially as it concerned the physical and moral circumstances of the industrial working class. For Thackrah's importance in the field of occupational health, see George Rosen, The History of Miners' Diseases: A Medical and Social Interpretation (New York: Schuman's, 1943), pp. 200-6.
29. W. H. Bodkin, "Pneumatic Apparatus for Valuing the Respiratory Powers," Lancet, 1844, 1, 390-91; P. J. Bishop, "A Bibliography of John Hutchinson," Med. Hist., 1977, 21, 384-96.
30. W. H. Bodkin, "Pneumatic Apparatus for Valuing the Respiratory Powers," Lancet, 1844, 1, 390-91; P. J. Bishop, "A Bibliography of John Hutchinson," Med. Hist., 1977, 21, 384-96.
31. John Hutchinson, "Lecture on Vital Statistics, Embracing an Account of a New Instrument for Detecting the Presence of Disease in the System," Lancet, 1844, 1, 567-70, 594-97. The occupational categories of the men he studied were sailors, soldiers, fire brigade, metropolitan and Thames police, paupers, mixed class, pugilists, giants, dwarfs, printers, draymen, and gentlemen. He also compared cases of early and late stage phthisis.
32. John Hutchinson, "On the Capacity of the Lungs, and on the Respiratory Functions, with a View of Establishing a Precise and Easy Method of Detecting Disease by the Spirometer," Medico-Chirurgical Trans., 1846, 29, 137-252.
33. Ibid., p. 149.
34. Ibid., pp. 142, 144.
35. Ibid., pp. 142-44.
36. Rothschuh, History of Physiology, pp. 180-87.
37. The term capacity, for example, carried meanings as diverse as "holding power," a volume or "containing space," ability, or possibility (Oxford English Dictionary).
38. For a discussion of the relationship between mechanistic and vitalist explanation in British physiology, see June Goodfield-Toulmin, "Some Aspects of English Physiology," J. Hist. Biol., 1969, 2, 283-320; Theodore M. Brown, "Physiology and the Mechanical Philosophy in Mid-Seventeenth- Century England," Bull. Hist. Med., 1977, 51, 25-54; Brown, "From Mechanism to Vitalism in Eighteenth-Century English Physiology," J. Hist. Biol., 1974, 7, 179-216. For a discussion of the various meanings of vitalism, see E. Benton, "Vitalism in Nineteenth-Century Scientific Thought: A Typology and Reassessment," Stud. Hist. Phil. Sci., 1974, 5, 17-48; and Jacalyn Duffin, "Vitalism and Organicism in the Philosophy of R.-T.-H. Laennec," Bull. Hist. Med., 1988, 62, 525-45.
39. For a discussion of the relationship between mechanistic and vitalist explanation in British physiology, see June Goodfield-Toulmin, "Some Aspects of English Physiology," J. Hist. Biol., 1969, 2, 283-320; Theodore M. Brown, "Physiology and the Mechanical Philosophy in Mid-Seventeenth- Century England," Bull. Hist. Med., 1977, 51, 25-54; Brown, "From Mechanism to Vitalism in Eighteenth-Century English Physiology," J. Hist. Biol., 1974, 7, 179-216. For a discussion of the various meanings of vitalism, see E. Benton, "Vitalism in Nineteenth-Century Scientific Thought: A Typology and Reassessment," Stud. Hist. Phil. Sci., 1974, 5, 17-48; and Jacalyn Duffin, "Vitalism and Organicism in the Philosophy of R.-T.-H. Laennec," Bull. Hist. Med., 1988, 62, 525-45.
40. For a discussion of the relationship between mechanistic and vitalist explanation in British physiology, see June Goodfield-Toulmin, "Some Aspects of English Physiology," J. Hist. Biol., 1969, 2, 283-320; Theodore M. Brown, "Physiology and the Mechanical Philosophy in Mid-Seventeenth- Century England," Bull. Hist. Med., 1977, 51, 25-54; Brown, "From Mechanism to Vitalism in Eighteenth-Century English Physiology," J. Hist. Biol., 1974, 7, 179-216. For a discussion of the various meanings of vitalism, see E. Benton, "Vitalism in Nineteenth-Century Scientific Thought: A Typology and Reassessment," Stud. Hist. Phil. Sci., 1974, 5, 17-48; and Jacalyn Duffin, "Vitalism and Organicism in the Philosophy of R.-T.-H. Laennec," Bull. Hist. Med., 1988, 62, 525-45.
41. For a discussion of the relationship between mechanistic and vitalist explanation in British physiology, see June Goodfield-Toulmin, "Some Aspects of English Physiology," J. Hist. Biol., 1969, 2, 283-320; Theodore M. Brown, "Physiology and the Mechanical Philosophy in Mid-Seventeenth- Century England," Bull. Hist. Med., 1977, 51, 25-54; Brown, "From Mechanism to Vitalism in Eighteenth-Century English Physiology," J. Hist. Biol., 1974, 7, 179-216. For a discussion of the various meanings of vitalism, see E. Benton, "Vitalism in Nineteenth-Century Scientific Thought: A Typology and Reassessment," Stud. Hist. Phil. Sci., 1974, 5, 17-48; and Jacalyn Duffin, "Vitalism and Organicism in the Philosophy of R.-T.-H. Laennec," Bull. Hist. Med., 1988, 62, 525-45.
42. For a discussion of the relationship between mechanistic and vitalist explanation in British physiology, see June Goodfield-Toulmin, "Some Aspects of English Physiology," J. Hist. Biol., 1969, 2, 283-320; Theodore M. Brown, "Physiology and the Mechanical Philosophy in Mid-Seventeenth- Century England," Bull. Hist. Med., 1977, 51, 25-54; Brown, "From Mechanism to Vitalism in Eighteenth-Century English Physiology," J. Hist. Biol., 1974, 7, 179-216. For a discussion of the various meanings of vitalism, see E. Benton, "Vitalism in Nineteenth-Century Scientific Thought: A Typology and Reassessment," Stud. Hist. Phil. Sci., 1974, 5, 17-48; and Jacalyn Duffin, "Vitalism and Organicism in the Philosophy of R.-T.-H. Laennec," Bull. Hist. Med., 1988, 62, 525-45.
43. Reiser, Medicine and the Reign of Technology, pp. 93-95.
44. Hutchinson, "On the Capacity of the Lungs," p. 150.
45. For a discussion of Quetelet's idea that the distribution of human traits, such as height and chest size, conformed to mathematical laws, see Porter, The Rise of Statistical Thinking, pp. 100-97.
46. Hutchinson, "Lecture on Vital Statistics," p. 570.
47. Hacking, "Biopower and the Avalanche of Printed Numbers," p. 280.
48. The reliability and efficiency of the armed and police forces had long been a source of anxiety to British imperialists. Peter Linebaugh, The London Hanged: Crime and Civil Society in the Eighteenth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992). An effective police force was only established in the late 18305 as theft from warehouses, markets, docks, and railways increased. Thompson, Making of the English Working Class, p. 265.
49. Hutchinson, "On the Capacity of the Lungs," p. 158.
50. Ibid., p. 202. In a humorous note, he remarks that the low vital capacity of Stephen Hales (1677-1761), a physiologist who studied circulation, was undoubtedly due to his gentlemanly status.
51. Ibid., p. 160.
52. For example, see George Dreyer, "Investigations on the Normal Vital Capacity in Man and its Relation to the Size of the Body: The Importance of This Measurement as a Guide to Physical Fitness under Different Conditions and in Different Classes of Individuals," Lancet, 1919, 2, 227-34. In this article, Dreyer takes Hutchinson's data on occupation and organizes it hierarchically with Chatham recruits exhibiting the highest vital capacity and paupers the lowest. He comments on the low vital capacity of gentlemen in 1846, suggesting that it was connected to "the life and habits of gentlemen in London at that date," p. 233.
53. Hutchinson, "On the Capacity of the Lungs," p. 178.
54. John Syer Bristowe, A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Medicine, 2nd ed. (Philadelphia: Henry C. Lea, 1879), p. 339.
55. Hutchinson, "On the Capacity of the Lungs," p. 195.
56. Poovey, Making a Social Body, pp. 115-31; Engels, The Condition of the Working Class.
57. Poovey, Making a Social Body, pp. 115-31; Engels, The Condition of the Working Class.
58. Bishop, "A Bibliography of John Hutchinson";
59. Herbert Davies, "A Course of Lectures on the Physical Diagnosis of Diseases of the Chest," Lancet, 1850, 1, 39-41.
60. Reiser, Medicine and the Reign of Technology, pp. 93-95.
61. Members of the U.S. Sanitary Commission, 1861-64: Rev. H. W. Bellows, D.D., Alexander Dallas Bache, LL.D., William H. Van Buren, M.D., Wolcott Gibbs, M.D., Robert C. Wood, M.D., George W. Cullum, Alexander E. Shiras, Samuel G. Howe, M.D., Elisha Harris, M.D., Cornelius R. Agnew, M.D., George T. Strong, Esq., John S. Newberry, M.D., Frederick Law Olmstead, Esq., Rt. Rev. Thomas M. Clark, Horace Binney Jr., Esq., Hon. R. W. Burnett, Hon. Mark Skinner, Hon. Joseph Holt, Rev. James H. Heywood, Fairman Rogers, Esq., J. Huntington Wolcott, Esq., Charles J. Stillé, Esq., and Ezra B. McCagg, Esq.
62. Charles J. Stille, History of the United States Sanitary Commission Being the General Report of Its Work during the War of the Rebellion (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1866); Ezra B. McCagg, "The United States Sanitary Commission," read 5 November 1884, J. Civil War Med., 2001, 3, 2-14; George Fredrickson, The Inner Civil War: Northern Intellectuals and the Crisis of the Union (New York: Harper & Row, 1965), pp. 98-112.
63. Charles J. Stille, History of the United States Sanitary Commission Being the General Report of Its Work during the War of the Rebellion (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1866); Ezra B. McCagg, "The United States Sanitary Commission," read 5 November 1884, J. Civil War Med., 2001, 3, 2-14; George Fredrickson, The Inner Civil War: Northern Intellectuals and the Crisis of the Union (New York: Harper & Row, 1965), pp. 98-112.
64. Charles J. Stille, History of the United States Sanitary Commission Being the General Report of Its Work during the War of the Rebellion (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1866); Ezra B. McCagg, "The United States Sanitary Commission," read 5 November 1884, J. Civil War Med., 2001, 3, 2-14; George Fredrickson, The Inner Civil War: Northern Intellectuals and the Crisis of the Union (New York: Harper & Row, 1965), pp. 98-112.
65. Jane Tuner Censer; Olmstead, Volume IV, Defending; Johns Hopkins University Press, pp. 1-61.
66. Ibid., p. 51.
67. Stillé, History of the United States Sanitary Commission, p. 460.
68. Benjamin Apthorp Gould, Investigations in the Military and Anthropological Statistics of American Soldiers (1869; New York: Arno Press, 1979), p. 221. Some of the original questionnaires can be found in Records of the U.S. Sanitary Commission, New York Public Library, Manuscripts and Archives Division, Box 100.
69. A. Hunter Dupree, "The National Academy of Sciences and the American Definition of Science," in The Organization of Knowledge in Modem America, 1860-1920, ed. Alexandra Oleson and John Voss (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1979), p. 343.
70. Gould, Investigations in the Military and Anthropological Statistics, p. 221.
71. Ibid., p. v.
72. Ibid., p. vi.
73. Ibid., p. 221.
74. Agassiz was also a member of the small group who founded the National Academy of Sciences; Dupree, "The National Academy of Sciences."
75. Ibid., p. 469.
76. Ibid., p. 471.
77. Lucius Brown to Benjamin Apthorp Gould, 7 May 1869, Box 133, Records of the U.S. Sanitary Commission, New York Public Library, Manuscripts and Archives Division.
78. Brown to Gould, 24 February 1868, Box 133, Records of the U.S. Sanitary Commission, New York Public Library, Manuscripts and Archives Division.
79. Lewis Gordon defines white normativity as "the schema in which whites serve as the exemplification of the human being and the presumption of what it means to be human." Lewis Gordon, "Critical Reflections on Three Popular Tropes in the Study of Whiteness" (unpublished manuscript).
80. Matthew Frye Jacobson, Whiteness of a Different Color: European Immigrants and the Alchemy of Race (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1998).
81. Interestingly, for Gould it was too complex to classify soldiers according to occupation because they engaged in multiple types of work simultaneously.
82. Gould, Investigations in the Military and Anthropological Statistics, p. 223.
83. Ibid., p. 226.
84. Ibid., p. 227.
85. Ibid., p. 297.
86. Ibid., p. 298.
87. I b i d.
88. Jean Comaroff, "The Diseased Heart of Africa: Medicine, Colonialism, and the Black Body," in Knowledge, Power, and Practice: The Anthropology of Medicine and Everyday Life, ed. Shirley Lindenbaum and Margaret Lock (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993). p. 311.
89. Gould, Investigations in the Military and Anthropological Statistics, p. 246.
90. Stillé, History of the United States Sanitary Commission, p. 467.
91. In "The Negro as a Soldier," Anthr. Rev., 1869, 7, 40-54, Sanford B. Hunt, abolitionist and surgeon for the Sanitary Commission, questions the nature of difference promoted by men such as Samuel Morton, concluding that "he has all the physical characteristics required [for military service], that his temperament adapts him to camp life and his morale conduced to this description. He is also brave and steady in action," p. 54. With respect to pulmonary disease, though, Hunt accepts prevailing notions of greater susceptibility with little qualification and argues specifically for more research on "measurements and the volume and the expansibility of the living thorax," p. 48.
92. Jebediah H. Baxter, Statistics, Medical and Anthropological of the Provost-Marshal-General's Bureau Derived from Records of the Examination for Military Service in the Armies of the United States during the Late War of the Rebellion of Over a Million Recruits, Drafted Men, Substitutes, and Enrolled Men, 2 vols. (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1875).
93. Ibid., I, p. vii.
94. Ibid., p. 4.
95. I b i d.
96. Ibid., pp. 30-48.
97. Ibid., p. 162.
98. Ibid., p. 182.
99. Ibid., p. 237.
100. Ibid., p. 342.
101. Ibid., p. 370.
102. Ibid., p. 394.
103. Ibid., p. 433.
104. John Harley Warner, "The Fall and Rise of Professional Mystery; Epistemology, Authority and Emergence of Laboratory Medicine in Nineteenth-Century America," in The Laboratory Revolution in Medicine, ed. Andrew Cunningham and Perry Williams (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992).
105. Cited in Anthony Bogues, Black Heretics, Black Prophets: Radical Political Intellectuals (New York and London: Routledge, 2003), p. 84. Bogues argues that by viewing the mass exodus of slaves from plantations as a general strike, Du Bois was reconceptualizing slaves as a social category.
106. Charles Darwin, "On the Races of Man," reprinted from The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex, in The Idea of Race, ed. Robert Bernasconi and Tommy L. Lott (1871; Indianapolis: Hackett, 2000), p. 55.
107. Ibid., p. 59.
108. George M. Fredrickson, Black Image in the White Mind: The Debate on Afro-American Character and Destiny, 1817-1914 (Hanover, N.H.: Wesleyan University Press, 1971).
109. Charles Gayaree, "The Southern Question," N. Amer. Rev., 1877, 125, 472-99, 497.
110. John S. Haller, "The Physician versus the Negro: Medical and Anthropological Concepts of Race in the Late Nineteenth Century," Bull. Hist. Med., 1970, 44, 154-67; Eugene R. Corson, "The Future of the Colored Race in the United States from an Ethnic and Medical Standpoint," N. Y. Med. Times, 1887, 15, 225-30; Edward A. Balloch, "The Relative Frequency of Fibroid Processes in the Dark-Skinned Races," Med. News, 1894, 64, 29-35; R. M. Cunningham, "The Morbidity and Mortality of Negro Convicts," Med. News, 1894, 64, 113-17.
111. John S. Haller, "The Physician versus the Negro: Medical and Anthropological Concepts of Race in the Late Nineteenth Century," Bull. Hist. Med., 1970, 44, 154-67; Eugene R. Corson, "The Future of the Colored Race in the United States from an Ethnic and Medical Standpoint," N. Y. Med. Times, 1887, 15, 225-30; Edward A. Balloch, "The Relative Frequency of Fibroid Processes in the Dark-Skinned Races," Med. News, 1894, 64, 29-35; R. M. Cunningham, "The Morbidity and Mortality of Negro Convicts," Med. News, 1894, 64, 113-17.
112. John S. Haller, "The Physician versus the Negro: Medical and Anthropological Concepts of Race in the Late Nineteenth Century," Bull. Hist. Med., 1970, 44, 154-67; Eugene R. Corson, "The Future of the Colored Race in the United States from an Ethnic and Medical Standpoint," N. Y. Med. Times, 1887, 15, 225-30; Edward A. Balloch, "The Relative Frequency of Fibroid Processes in the Dark-Skinned Races," Med. News, 1894, 64, 29-35; R. M. Cunningham, "The Morbidity and Mortality of Negro Convicts," Med. News, 1894, 64, 113-17.
113. John S. Haller, "The Physician versus the Negro: Medical and Anthropological Concepts of Race in the Late Nineteenth Century," Bull. Hist. Med., 1970, 44, 154-67; Eugene R. Corson, "The Future of the Colored Race in the United States from an Ethnic and Medical Standpoint," N. Y. Med. Times, 1887, 15, 225-30; Edward A. Balloch, "The Relative Frequency of Fibroid Processes in the Dark-Skinned Races," Med. News, 1894, 64, 29-35; R. M. Cunningham, "The Morbidity and Mortality of Negro Convicts," Med. News, 1894, 64, 113-17.
114. W. J. Burt, "On the Anatomical and Physiological Differences between the White and Negro Races, and the Modification of Diseases Resulting Therefrom," St. Louis Courier of Medicine, 1882, 8, 416-23, p. 422.
115. Cunningham, "The Morbidity and Mortality of Negro Convicts," p. 115.
116. M. V. Ball, "The Mortality of the Negro," Med. News, 1894, 64, 389-90.
117. Quoted in George W. Stocking, "The Turn-of-the-Century Concept of Race," Modernism / Modernity, 1994, 1.1, 4-16, 9.
118. Francis J. Sypher, "The Rediscovered Prophet: Frederick L. Huffman (1865-1946)," available online at www.cosmos-club.org/journals/2000/sypher. html, accessed 5 January 2000.
119. Frederick L. Hoffman, "Vital Statistics of the Negro," Arena, 1892, 29, 529-42.
120. Frederick L. Hoffman, History of the Prudential Insurance Company of American (Industrial Insurance), 1875-1900 (Newark, N.J.: Prudential Press, 1900); Frederick L. Hoffman, "The Colored Race in Life Assurance," Lancet, 1898, 2, 902; John S. Haller, "Race, Mortality, and Life Insurance: Negro Vital Statistics in the Late Nineteenth Century," J. Hist. Med. Allied Sci., 1970, 50, 247-61.
121. Frederick L. Hoffman, History of the Prudential Insurance Company of American (Industrial Insurance), 1875-1900 (Newark, N.J.: Prudential Press, 1900); Frederick L. Hoffman, "The Colored Race in Life Assurance," Lancet, 1898, 2, 902; John S. Haller, "Race, Mortality, and Life Insurance: Negro Vital Statistics in the Late Nineteenth Century," J. Hist. Med. Allied Sci., 1970, 50, 247-61.
122. Frederick L. Hoffman, History of the Prudential Insurance Company of American (Industrial Insurance), 1875-1900 (Newark, N.J.: Prudential Press, 1900); Frederick L. Hoffman, "The Colored Race in Life Assurance," Lancet, 1898, 2, 902; John S. Haller, "Race, Mortality, and Life Insurance: Negro Vital Statistics in the Late Nineteenth Century," J. Hist. Med. Allied Sci., 1970, 50, 247-61.
123. Frederick L. Hoffman, "The Negro in the West Indies," Pub. Am. Stat. Assoc., 1895, 4, 181-200; Frederick L. Hoffman, Race Traits and Tendencies of the American Negro (New York: American Economic Association, 1896).
124. Frederick L. Hoffman, "The Negro in the West Indies," Pub. Am. Stat. Assoc., 1895, 4, 181-200; Frederick L. Hoffman, Race Traits and Tendencies of the American Negro (New York: American Economic Association, 1896).
125. Huffman, Race Traits, p. viii.
126. Ibid., p. 162.
127. Ibid., p. 164.
128. George W. Stocking, Race, Culture, and Evolution: Essays in the History of Anthropology (New York: Free Press, 1968); Stocking, "The Turn-of-the-Century Concept of Race."
129. George W. Stocking, Race, Culture, and Evolution: Essays in the History of Anthropology (New York: Free Press, 1968); Stocking, "The Turn-of-the-Century Concept of Race."
130. Frederick L. Huffman, "Racial Aspects of the Tuberculosis Problem," Association of Tuberculosis Clinics NYC, 27 April 1917, p. 4, Box 14, Folder No. 423, Frederick L. Hoffman collection, Rare Book and Manuscript Library of Columbia University, New York.
131. Frederick L. Huffman, "The Problem of Negro-White Intermixture and Intermarriage," Eugenics in Race and State, 1923, 2, 175-87.
132. Frederick L. Huffman, "What American Has Done for Haiti," Stone and Webster J., July 1929, p. 55, Box 14, Frederick L. Hoffman collection, Rare Book and Manuscript Library of Columbia University, New York.
133. Gary N. Calkins, "Book Review. Race Traits and Tendencies of the American Negro," Pol., Sci. Quart., 1896, 11, 754-57; "How to Figure the Extinction of a Race," Nation, 1867, 64, 246-48; W. J. McGee, "Book Review. Race Traits and Tendencies of the American Negro," Science, 1897, 5, 65-69; Frederick Starr, "The Degeneracy of the American Negro," Dial, 1897, 22, 17-18.
134. Gary N. Calkins, "Book Review. Race Traits and Tendencies of the American Negro," Pol., Sci. Quart., 1896, 11, 754-57; "How to Figure the Extinction of a Race," Nation, 1867, 64, 246-48; W. J. McGee, "Book Review. Race Traits and Tendencies of the American Negro," Science, 1897, 5, 65-69; Frederick Starr, "The Degeneracy of the American Negro," Dial, 1897, 22, 17-18.
135. Gary N. Calkins, "Book Review. Race Traits and Tendencies of the American Negro," Pol., Sci. Quart., 1896, 11, 754-57; "How to Figure the Extinction of a Race," Nation, 1867, 64, 246-48; W. J. McGee, "Book Review. Race Traits and Tendencies of the American Negro," Science, 1897, 5, 65-69; Frederick Starr, "The Degeneracy of the American Negro," Dial, 1897, 22, 17-18.
136. Gary N. Calkins, "Book Review. Race Traits and Tendencies of the American Negro," Pol., Sci. Quart., 1896, 11, 754-57; "How to Figure the Extinction of a Race," Nation, 1867, 64, 246-48; W. J. McGee, "Book Review. Race Traits and Tendencies of the American Negro," Science, 1897, 5, 65-69; Frederick Starr, "The Degeneracy of the American Negro," Dial, 1897, 22, 17-18.
137. Miles Melander Dawson, "Hoffman's Statistical Study of the Negro," Public. Am. Stat. Assoc., 1896, 3, 142-48; Starr, "The Degeneracy of the American Negro," pp. 17-18; McGee, "Review of Race Traits and Tendencies of the Negro," pp. 65-68.
138. Miles Melander Dawson, "Hoffman's Statistical Study of the Negro," Public. Am. Stat. Assoc., 1896, 3, 142-48; Starr, "The Degeneracy of the American Negro," pp. 17-18; McGee, "Review of Race Traits and Tendencies of the Negro," pp. 65-68.
139. Miles Melander Dawson, "Hoffman's Statistical Study of the Negro," Public. Am. Stat. Assoc., 1896, 3, 142-48; Starr, "The Degeneracy of the American Negro," pp. 17-18; McGee, "Review of Race Traits and Tendencies of the Negro," pp. 65-68.
140. Calkins, "Review," pp. 754-57.
141. "How to Figure the Extinction of a Race," pp. 246-48.
142. Rudolph Matas to Frederick L. Hoffman, 21 April 1897, Correspondence File, F. L. Hoffman collection, Rare Book and Manuscript Library of Columbia University, New York.
143. Kelly Miller, "A Review of Huffman's Race Traits and Tendencies of the American Negro," Occasional Papers, no. 1. (Washington, D.C.: American Negro Academy, 1897), p. 6.
144. Ibid., p. 16.
145. Ibid., p. 19.
146. Ibid., p. 21.
147. W. E. B. Du Bois, "The Study of the Negro Problems," in Writings by W.E.B. Du Bois in Periodicals Edited by Others, vol. 1, 1891-1909, ed. Herbert Aptheker (Millwood, N.J.: Kraus-Thompson, 1982), p. 47.
148. Ibid., p. 48.
149. Fredrickson, Black Image, pp. 249-52.
150. Burton J. Bledstein, The Culture of Professionalism: The Middle Class and the Development of Higher Education in America (New York: Norton, 1976).
151. Among the professional societies to which Hoffinan belonged were the National Association for the Study and Prevention of Tuberculosis founded in 1904 (Hoffman was one of only ten laypeople among the 156 original members; Julius Lane Wilson, "History of the American Thoracic Society. Part I. The American Sanatorium Association, Am. Rev. Resp. Dis., 1979, 119, 177-84, 178); the American Association of the Academy of Science; the Royal Anthropological Institute; the American Public Health Association; the Committee on Anthropology and Chairman of the Subcommittee on Race in Relation to Disease (Civilian Records) of the National Research Council; and the American Statistical Society (president in 1911).
152. Alice Hamilton, Exploring the Dangerous Trades: The Autobiography of Alice Hamilton (Boston: Little, Brown, 1943).
153. Patricia Cline Cohen, A Calculating People: The Spread of Numeracy in Early America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982), p. 219.