Infectious causes of stroke

The Lancet Infectious Diseases

Volumn 14, Issue 9, 2014, Pages 869-880

  Fugate, Jennifer E ^a   Lyons, Jennifer L ^b   Thakur, Kiran T ^c   Smith, Bryan R ^d   Hedley Whyte, E Tessa ^b   Mateen, Farrah J ^b  

^a MAYO CLINIC   (United States)

^b MASSACHUSETTS GENERAL HOSPITAL   (United States)

^c JOHNS HOPKINS HOSPITAL   (United States)

^d NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF NEUROLOGICAL DISORDERS AND STROKE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BACTERIAL ENDOCARDITIS; BACTERIAL MENINGITIS; BRAIN MALARIA; CEREBROVASCULAR ACCIDENT; CHAGAS DISEASE; DIMORPHIC FUNGAL INFECTION; FUNGUS; GNATHOSTOMIASIS; HERPES VIRUS; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS; INFECTION; INFECTION RISK; MOULD; NEUROCYSTICERCOSIS; NONHUMAN; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SCHISTOSOMIASIS; SECONDARY PREVENTION; SYPHILIS; TUBERCULOSIS; YEAST;

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM INFECTIONS; ENDOCARDITIS; HUMANS; INFECTION; STROKE; SYPHILIS; TUBERCULOSIS;

EID: 84906935432     PISSN: 14733099     EISSN: 14744457     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S1473-3099(14)70755-8     Document Type: Review

References (143)

1. Murray CJ, Vos T, Lozano R, et al. Disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) for 291 diseases and injuries in 21 regions, 1990-2010: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010. Lancet 2012, 380:2197-2223.
2. Wolf PA, D'Agostino RB, Belanger AJ, Kannel WB Probability of stroke: a risk profile from the Framingham Study. Stroke 1991, 22:312-318.
3. Understanding risk American Stroke Association, (accessed March 30, 2014). http://www.strokeassociation.org/STROKEORG/AboutStroke/UnderstandingRisk/Understanding-Stroke-Risk_UCM_308539_SubHomePage.jsp%20Last.
4. Feigin VL, Lawes CM, Bennett DA, Barker-Collo SL, Parag V Worldwide stroke incidence and early case fatality reported in 56 population-based studies: a systematic review. Lancet Neurol 2009, 8:355-369.
5. Grau AJ, Urbanek C, Palm F Common infections and the risk of stroke. Nat Rev Neurol 2010, 6:681-694.
6. Grau AJ, Buggle F, Heindl S, et al. Recent infection as a risk factor for cerebrovascular ischemia. Stroke 1995, 26:373-379.
7. Bova IY, Bornstein NM, Korczyn AD Acute infection as a risk factor for ischemic stroke. Stroke 1996, 27:2204-2206.
8. Syrjänen J, Valtonen VV, Livanainen M, Kaste M, Huttunen JK Preceding infection as an important risk factor for ischaemic brain infarction in young and middle aged patients. BMJ (Clin Res Ed) 1988, 296:1156-1160.
9. Clayton TC, Thompson M, Meade TW Recent respiratory infection and risk of cardiovascular disease: case-control study through a general practice database. Eur Heart J 2008, 29:96-103.
10. Nencini P, Sarti C, Innocenti R, Pracucci G, Inzitari D Acute inflammatory events and ischemic stroke subtypes. Cerebrovasc Dis 2003, 15:215-221.
11. Paganini-Hill A, Lozano E, Fischberg G, et al. Infection and risk of ischemic stroke: differences among stroke subtypes. Stroke 2003, 34:452-457.
12. Smeeth L, Thomas SL, Hall AJ, Hubbard R, Farrington P, Vallance P Risk of myocardial infarction and stroke after acute infection or vaccination. N Engl J Med 2004, 351:2611-2618.
13. International classification of diseases, ninth revision (ICD-9) CDC, (accessed May 16, 2014). http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/icd/icd9.htm.
14. Schut ES, Lucas MJ, Brouwer MC, Vergouwen MD, van der Ende A, van de Beek D Cerebral infarction in adults with bacterial meningitis. Neurocrit Care 2012, 16:421-427.
15. Kastenbauer S, Pfister HW Pneumococcal meningitis in adults: spectrum of complications and prognostic factors in a series of 87 cases. Brain 2003, 126:1015-1025.
16. Pfister H, Borasio GD, Dirnagl U, Bauer M, Einhaupl KM Cerebrovascular complications of bacterial meningitis in adults. Neurology 1992, 42:1497-1504.
17. Wiesfelt M, van de Beek D, Spanjaard L, Reitsma JB, de Gans J Clinical features, complications, and outcome in adults with pneumococcal meningitis: a prospective case series. Lancet Neurol 2006, 5:123-129.
18. Ozates M, Kemaloglu S, Gurkan F, Ozkan U, Hosoglu S, Simsek MM CT of the brain in tuberculous meningitis. A review of 289 patients. Acta Radiol 2000, 41:13-17.
19. Murdoch DR, Corey GR, Hoen B, et al. Clinical presentation, etiology, and outcome of infective endocarditis in the 21st century: the International Collaboration on Endocarditis-Prospective Cohort study. Arch Intern Med. 2009, 169:463-473.
20. Cooper HA, Thompson EC, Laureno R, et al. Subclinical brain embolization in left-sided infective endocarditis: results from the evaluation by MRI of the brains of patients with left-sided intracardiac solid masses (EMBOLISM) pilot study. Circulation 2009, 120:585-591.
21. Kang J, Ho J, Chen Y, Lin H Increased risk of stroke after a Herpes zoster attack: a population-based follow-up study. Stroke 2009, 40:3443-3448.
22. Lin H, Chien C, Ho J Herpes zoster ophthalmicus and the risk of stroke: a population-based follow-up study. Neurology 2010, 74:792-797.
23. Lee M, Yang H, Wang C, et al. Hepatitis C virus infection and increased risk of cerebrovascular disease. Stroke 2010, 41:2894-2900.
24. Rasmussen LD, Engsig FN, Christensen H, et al. Risk of cerebrovascular events in persons with and without HIV: a Danish nationwide population-based cohort study. AIDS 2011, 25:1637-1646.
25. Chow FC, Regan S, Feske S, Meigs JB, Grinspoon S, Triant V Comparison of ischemic stroke incidence in HIV-infected and non-HIV-infected patients in a US health care system. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2012, 60:351-358.
26. Nunes MC, Barbosa MM, Ribeiro AL, Barbosa FB, Rocha MO Ischemic cerebrovascular events in patients with Chagas cardiomyopathy: a prospective follow-up study. J Neurol Sci 2009, 278:96-100.
27. Elkind MS, Ramakrishnan P, Moon YP, et al. Infectious burden and risk of stroke: the northern Manhattan study. Arch Neurol 2010, 67:33-38.
28. Epstein SE, Zhou YF, Zhu J Infection and atherosclerosis: emerging mechanistic paradigms. Circulation 1999, 100:e20-e28.
29. Lindsberg PJ, Grau AJ Inflammation and infections as risk factors for ischemic stroke. Stroke 2003, 34:2518-2532.
30. Elkind MS Inflammatory mechanisms of stroke. Stroke 2010, 41:S3-S8.
31. C-reactive protein concentration and risk of coronary heart disease, stroke, and mortality: an individual participant meta-analysis. Lancet 2010, 375:132-140. The emerging Risk Factors Collaboration.
32. Kunze AK, Annecke A, Wigger F, et al. Recent infection as a risk factor for intracerebral and subarachnoid haemorrhages. Cerebrovasc Dis 2000, 10:352-358.
33. Grau AJ, Preusch MR, Palm F, Lichy C, Becher H, Buggle F Association of symptoms of chronic bronchitis and frequent flu-like illnesses with stroke. Stroke 2009, 40:3206-3210.
34. Roquer J, Cuadrado-Godia E, Giralt-Steinthauer E, et al. Previous infection and stroke: a prospective study. Cerebrovasc Dis 2012, 33:310-315.
35. Syrjanen J, Peltola J, Valtonen V, Livanainen M, Kaste M, Huttunen JK Dental infections in association with cerebral infarction in young and middle-aged men. J Intern Med 1989, 225:179-184.
36. Joshipura KJ, Hung HC, Rimm EB, Willett WC, Ascherio A Periodontal disease, tooth loss, and incidence of ischemic stroke. Stroke 2003, 34:47-52.
37. Lockhart PB, Bolger AF, Papanpanou PN, et al. Periodontal disease and atherosclerotic vascular disease: does the evidence support an independent association?: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation 2012, 125:2520-2544.
38. Dickerman SA, Abrutyn E, Barsic B, et al. The relationship between the initiation of antimicrobial therapy and the incidence of stroke in infective endocarditis: an analysis from the ICE Prospective Cohort Study (ICE-PCS). Am Heart J 2007, 154:1086.
39. Duval X, Lung B, Klein I, et al. Effect of early cerebral magnetic resonance imaging on clinical decisions in infective endocarditis: A prospective study. Ann Intern Med 2010, 152:497-504.
40. Chow FC, Marra CM, Cho TA Cerebrovascular disease in central nervous system infections. Semin Neurol 2011, 31:286-306.
41. Peters PJ, Harrison T, Lennox JL A dangerous dilemma: management of infectious intracranial aneurysms complicating endocarditis. Lancet Infect Dis 2006, 11:742-748.
42. Klein M, Koedel U, Pfefferkorn T, Zeller G, Woehrl B, Pfister HW Arterial cerebrovascular complications in 94 adults with acute bacterial meningitis. Crit Care 2011, 15:R281.
43. van de Beek D, de Gans J, Tunkel AR, Wijdicks EF Community-acquired bacterial meningitis in adults. N Engl J Med 2006, 354:44-53.
44. Mook-Kanamori BB, Fritz D, Brouwer MC, van der Ende A, van de Beek D Intracerebral hemorrhages in adults with community associated bacterial meningitis: should we reconsider anticoagulant therapy?. PLoS One 2012, 7:e45271.
45. Holmes MD, Brant-Zawadzki MM, Simon RP Clinical features of meningovascular syphilis. Neurology 1984, 34:553-556.
46. Jacobi C, Schwark C, Kress B, Hug A, Storch-Hagenlocher B, Schwaninger M Subarachnoid haemorrhage due to Borrelia burgdoferi-associated vasculitis. Eur J Neurol 2006, 13:536-538.
47. Hooshmand H, Escobar MR, Kopf SW Neurosyphilis: a study of 241 patients. JAMA 1972, 219:726-729.
48. Lachaud S, Suissa L, Mahagne MH Stroke, HIV, and meningovascular syphilis: study of three cases. Rev Neurol (Paris) 2010, 166:76-82. (in French).
49. Radwan W, Sawaya R Intracranial haemorrhage associated with cerebral infections: a review. Scand J Infect Dis 2011, 43:675-682.
50. Thwaites GE, Bang ND, Dung NH, et al. World Health Organization Global tuberculosis report 2012: The influence of HIV infection on clinical presentation, response to treatment, and outcome in adults with tuberculous meningitis. J Infect Dis 2005, 192:2134-2141.
51. Lammie GA, Hewlett RH, Schoeman JF, Donald PR Tuberculous cerebrovascular disease: a review. J Infect 2009, 59:156-166.
52. Schoeman J, Mansvelt E, Springer P, van Rensburg AJ, Carlini S, Fourle E Coagulant and fibrinolytic status in tuberculous meningitis. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2007, 26:428-431.
53. Winkleman NW, Moore T Meningeal blood vessels in tuberculous meningitis. Am Rev Tuberc 1940, 42:315-333.
54. Rich AR, McCordock HA The pathogenesis of tuberculous meningitis. Johns Hopkins Med J 1933, 52:5-37.
55. Vinnard C, Macgregor RR Tuberculous meningitis in HIV infected individuals. Curr HIV/AIDS Rep 2009, 6:139-145.
56. Leiguarda R, Berthier M, Starkstein S, et al. Ischemic infarction in 25 children with tuberculous meningitis. Stroke 1988, 19:200-204.
57. Lehrer H The angiographic triad in tuberculous meningitis. A radiographic and clinicopathologic correlation. Radiology 1966, 87:829-835.
58. Nair PP, Kalita J, Kumar S, Misra UK MRI pattern of infarcts in basal ganglia region in patients with tuberculous meningitis. Neuroradiology 2009, 51:221-225.
59. Sheu JJ, Chiou HY, Kang JH, Chen YH, Lin HC Tuberculosis and the risk of ischemic stroke: a 3-year follow-up study. Stroke 2010, 41:244-249.
60. Ridker PM, Hennekens CH, Stampfer MJ, Wang F Prospective study of herpes simplex virus, cytomegalovirus, and the risk of future myocardial infarction and stroke. Circulation 1998, 98:2796-2799.
61. Huang Z, Yu L, Yang X, et al. Human cytomegalovirus linked to stroke in a Chinese population. CNS NeurosciTher 2012, 18:457-460.
62. Argyriou AA, Tsota I, Solomou E, et al. Intracerebral haemorrhage as a rare complication of HSV-1 meningoencephalitis: case report and review of the literature. Scand J Infect Dis 2006, 38:63-66.
63. Alexandri NM, Tavernarakis A, Potagas C, Molari H, Koutra H Ischemic stroke and herpes simplex virus type-1 associated meningoencephalitis. Rev Neurol 2004, 160:579-581.
64. Nagel MA, Cohrs RJ, Mahalingam R, et al. The varicella zoster virus vasculopathies: clinical, CSF, imaging, and virologic features. Neurology 2008, 70:853-860.
65. Nagel MA, Forghani B, Mahalingam R, et al. The value of detecting anti-VZV IgG antibody in CSF to diagnose VZV vasculopathy. Neurology 2007, 68:1069-1073.
66. Moriuchi H, Rodrigeuz W Role of varicella-zoster virus in stroke syndromes. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2000, 19:648-653.
67. Huang H, Kang R, Zhao Z Hepatitis C virus infection and risk of stroke: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PloS One 2013, 8:e81305.
68. Douvoyiannis M, Litman N, Goldman DL Neurologic manifestations associated with Parvovirus B19 infection. Clin Infect Dis 2009, 48:1713-1723.
69. Whitney EA, Heilpern KL, Woods CW, et al. West Nile virus among hospitalized, febrile patients: a case for expanding diagnostic testing. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2006, 6:42-49.
70. Mathew S, Pandian JD Stroke in patients with dengue. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis 2010, 19:253-256.
71. Welch K, Finkbeiner W, Alpers CE, et al. Autopsy findings in the acquired immune deficiency syndrome. JAMA 1984, 252:1152-1159.
72. Mateen FJ, Post WS, Sacktor N, et al. Long-term predictive value of the Framingham Risk Score for stroke in HIV-positive vs HIV-negative men. Neurology 2013, 81:2094-2102. for the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study (MACS) Investigators.
73. Monforte AD, Reiss P, Ryom L, et al. Atazanavir is not associated with an increased risk of cardio or cerebrovascular disease events. AIDS 2013, 27:407-415.
74. Vinikoor MJ, Napravnik S, Floris-Moore M, Wilson S, Huang DY, Eron JJ Incidence and clinical features of cerebrovascular disease among HIV-infected adults in the Southeastern United States. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 2013, 29:1068-1074.
75. Qureshi AI, Janssen RS, Karon JM, et al. Human immunodeficiency virus infection and stroke in young patients. Arch Neurol 1997, 54:1150-1153.
76. Hoffman M, Berger JR, Nath A, Rayens M Cerebrovascular disease in young, HIV-infected black Africans in the KwaZulu Natal province of South Africa. J Neurovirol 2000, 6:229-236.
77. Cole JW, Pinto AN, Hebel JR, et al. Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome and the risk of stroke. Stroke 2004, 35:51-56.
78. Patel VB, Sacoor Z, Francis P, Bill PL, Bhigjee AI, Connolly C Ischemic stroke in young HIV-positive patients in Kwazulu-Natal, South Africa. Neurology 2005, 65:759-761.
79. Evers S, Nabavi D, Rahmann A, Heese C, Reichelt D, Husstedt IW Ischaemic cerebrovascular events in HIV infection. Cerebrovasc Dis 2003, 15:199-205.
80. Corral I, Quereda C, Moreno A, et al. Cerebrovascular ischemic events in HIV-1-infected patients receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy: incidence and risk factors. Cerebrovasc Dis 2009, 27:559-563.
81. Worm SW, Kamara DA, Reiss P, et al. Evaluation of HIV protease inhibitor use and the risk of sudden death or nonhaemorrhagic stroke. J Infect Dis 2012, 205:535-539.
82. Valcour V, Chalermchai T, Sailasuta N, et al. Central nervous system viral invasion and inflammation during acute HIV infection. J Infect Dis 2012, 206:275-282.
83. Gutierrez J, Glenn M, Isaacson RS, Marr AD, Mash D, Petito C Thinning of the arterial media layer as a possible preclinical stage in HIV vasculopathy: a pilot study. Stroke 2012, 43:1156-1158.
84. Tipping B, de Villiers L, Candy S, et al. Stroke caused by human immunodeficiency virus-associated intracranial large-vessel aneurysmal vasculopathy. Arch Neurol 2006, 63:1640-1642.
85. Kossorotoff M, Touze E, Godon-Hardy S, et al. Cerebral vasculopathy with aneurysm formation in HIV-infected young adults. Neurology 2006, 66:1121. 1121.
86. Mochan A, Modi M, Modi G Stroke in black South African HIV-positive patients: a prospective analysis. Stroke 2003, 34:10-15.
87. Mochan A, Modi M, Modi G Protein S deficiency in HIV associated ischaemic stroke: an epiphenomenon of HIV infection. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatr 2005, 76:1455-1456.
88. Restrepo L, McArthur JC Stroke and HIV infection. Stroke 2003, 34:e176-e177.
89. Rosario M, Song SX, McCullough LD An unusual case of stroke. Neurologist 2012, 18:229-232.
90. Ludmerer SW, Wright DJ, Schimmel P Purification of glutamine tRNA synthetase from Saccharomyces cerevisiae. A monomeric aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase with a large and dispensable NH2-terminal domain. J Biol Chem 1993, 268:5519-5523.
91. Saul RF, Gallagher JG, Mateer JE Sudden hemiparesis as the presenting sign in cryptococcal meningoencephalitis. Stroke 1986, 17:753-754.
92. Ashdown BC, Tien RD, Felsberg GJ Aspergillosis of the brain and paranasal sinuses in immunocompromised patients: CT and MR imaging findings. Am J Roentgenol 1994, 162:155-159.
93. Dayal Y, Weindling HK, Price DL Cerebral infarction due to fungal embolus. A complication of Aspergillus infection on an aortic valve prosthesis. Neurology 1974, 24:76-79.
94. Seton M, Pless M, Fishman JA, Caruso PA, Hedley-Whyte ET Case records of the Massachusetts General Hospital. Case 18-2008. A 68-year-old man with headache and visual changes after liver transplantation. N Engl J Med 2008, 358:2619-2628.
95. Rangel-Guerra RA, Martinez HR, Saenz C, Bosques-Padilla F, Estrada-Bellmann I Rhinocerebral and systemic mucormycosis. Clinical experience with 36 cases. J Neurol Sci 1996, 143:19-30.
96. Bell WR, Dalton JB, McCall CM, et al. Iatrogenic Exserohilum infection of the central nervous system: mycological identification and histopathological findings. Mod Pathol 2013, 26:166-170.
97. Smith RM, Schaefer MK, Kainer MA, et al. Fungal infections associated with contaminated methylprednisolone injections. N Engl J Med 2013, 369:1598-1609.
98. Grouhi M, Dalal I, Nisbet-Brown E, Roifman CM Cerebral vasculitis associated with chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis. J Pediatr 1998, 133:571-574.
99. Wasserman AM, Sarantopoulos GP, Khanna D Fungal leukocytoclastic vasculitis as a presentation of systemic vasculitis in a patient with systemic lupus erythematosus. J Clin Rheumatol 2009, 15:383-386.
100. Sun XL, Zhang J, Wang GG, et al. Comparison of characteristics and short-term outcome from fungal infective endocarditis in prosthetic valve endocarditis versus native valve endocarditis. Am J Cardiol 2013, published online July 1. 10.1016/J.AMJCARD.2013.02.086.
101. Browne SK, Burbelo PD, Chetchotisakd P, et al. Adult-onset immunodeficiency in Thailand and Taiwan. N Engl J Med 2012, 367:725-734.
102. Lan SH, Chang WN, Lu CH, Lui CC, Chang HW Cerebral infarction in chronic meningitis: a comparison of tuberculous meningitis and cryptococcal meningitis. QJM 2001, 94:247-253.
103. Elias J, dos Santos AC, Carlotti CG, et al. Central nervous system paracoccidioidomycosis: diagnosis and treatment. Surg Neurol 2005, 63:S13-12.
104. Bariola JR, Perry P, Pappas PG, et al. Blastomycosis of the central nervous system: a multicenter review of diagnosis and treatment in the modern era. Clin Infect Dis 2010, 50:797-804.
105. Bush JW, Wuerz T, Embil JM, et al. Outcomes of persons with blastomycosis involving the central nervous system. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2013, 76:175-181.
106. Paniago AM, de Oliveira PA, Aquiar ES, et al. Neuroparacoccidioidomycosis: analysis of 13 cases observed in an endemic area in Brazil. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 2007, 101:414-420.
107. Donabedian H, O'Donnell E, Olszewski C Disseminated cutaneous and meningeal sporotrichosis in an AIDS patient. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 1994, 18:111-115.
108. Noritomi DT, Bub GL, Beer I, et al. Multiple brain abscesses due to Penicillium spp infection. Rev Inst Trop S Paulo 2005, 47:167-170.
109. Saccente M Central nervous system histoplasmosis. Curr Treat Options Neurol 2008, 10:161-167.
110. Williams PL, Johnson R, Pappagianis D, et al. Vasculitic and encephalitic complications associated with Coccidioides immitis infection of the central nervous system in humans: report of 10 cases and review. Clin Infect Dis 1992, 14:673-682.
111. Arsura EL, Johnson R, Penrose J, et al. Neuroimaging as a guide to predict outcomes for patients with coccidioidal meningitis. Clin Infect Dis 2005, 40:624-627.
112. Chagas disease. Seventeenth programme report 2004, World Health Organization, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland.
113. Prata A Clinical and epidemiological aspects of Chagas disease. Lancet Infect Dis 2001, 1:92-100.
114. Rassi A, Rassi A, Little WC Chagas' heart disease. Clin Cardiol 2000, 23:883-889.
115. Armaganijan L, Morillo CA Chagas disease: 101 years of solitude! Time for action. Stroke 2010, 41:2453-2454.
116. Marin-Neto JA, Cunha-Neto E, Maciel BC, Simoes MV Pathogenesis of chronic Chagas heart disease. Circulation 2007, 115:1109-1123.
117. Carod-Artal FJ, Vargas AP, Horan TA, Nunes LG Chagasic cardiomyopathy is independently associated with ischemic stroke in Chagas disease. Stroke 2005, 36:965-970.
118. Garcia HH, Gonzalez AE, Evans CA, Gilman RH Taenia solium cysticercosis. Lancet 2003, 362:547-556. Cysticercosis Working Group in Peru.
119. Tellez-Zenteno JF, Negrete-Pulido O, Cantu C, Marquez C, Vega-Boada F, Garcia Ramos G Hemorrhagic stroke associated to neurocysticercosis. Neurologia 2003, 18:272-275.
120. Barinagarrementeria F, Cantu C Frequency of cerebral arteritis in subarachnoid cysticercosis: an angiographic study. Stroke 1998, 29:123-125.
121. Viola GM, White AC, Serpa JA Short report: hemorrhagic cerebrovascular events and neurocysticercosis: a case report and review of the literature. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2011, 84:402-405.
122. Kim IY, Kim TS, Lee JH, Lee MC, Lee JK, Jung S Inflammatory aneurysm due to neurocysticercosis. J Clin Neurosci 2005, 12:585-588.
123. Preidler KW, Riepl T, Szolar D, Ranner G Cerebral schistosomiasis: MR and CT appearance. AJNR 1996, 17:1598-1600.
124. Jaureguiberry S, Ansart S, Perez L, Danis M, Bricaire F, Caumes E Acute neuroschistosomiasis: two cases associated with cerebral vasculitis. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2007, 76:964-966.
125. Sarazin M, Caumes E, Cohen A, Amarenco P Multiple microembolic borderzone brain infarctions and endomyocardial fibrosis in idiopathic hypereosinophilic syndrome and in Schistosoma mansoni infestation. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2004, 75:305-307.
126. Jauréguiberry S, Caumes E Neurological involvement during Katayama syndrome. Lancet Infect Dis 2008, 8:9-10.
127. Lambertucci JR, Silva LC, do Amaral RS Guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of schistosomal myeloradiculopathy. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop 2007, 40:574-581.
128. Lv S, Zhang Y, Steinmann P, Zhou XN, Utzinger J Helminth infections of the central nervous system occurring in Southeast Asia and the Far East. Adv Parasitol 2010, 72:351-408.
129. Dorovini-Zis K, Schmidt K, Huynh H, et al. The neuropathology of fatal cerebral malaria in malawian children. Am J Pathol 2011, 178:2146-2158.
130. Tong KA, Raghavan C Imaging cerebral malaria with a susceptibility-weighted MR sequence. AJNR 2009, 30:e85-e86.
131. McIntosh HM, Olliaro P Artemisinin derivatives for treating severe malaria. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2000, CD000527.
132. Thwaites GE, Macmullen-Price J, Tran TH, et al. Serial MRI to determine the effect of dexamethasone on the cerebral pathology of tuberculous meningitis: an observational study. Lancet Neurol 2007, 6:230-236.
133. Thwaites, Nguyen DB, Nguyen HD, et al. Dexamethasone for the treatment of tuberculous meningitis in adolescents and adults. N Engl J Med 2004, 351:1741-1751.
134. Herman JS, Chiodini PL Gnathostomiasis: another emerging imported disease. Clin Microbiol Rev 2009, 22:484-492.
135. Mateen FJ, Sweeney EM, Thakur KT, et al. IV-tissue plasminogen activator (IV-TPA) for acute ischemic stroke (AIS) in HIV+ adults (abstract S414). Ann Neurol 2013, 74(suppl):S17.
136. Tornos P, Almirante B, Mirabet S, et al. Infective endocarditis due to Staphylococcus aureus: deleterious effect of anticoagulant therapy. Arch Intern Med 1999, 159:473-475.
137. Kang D, Kim Y, Kim S, et al. Early surgery versus conventional treatment for infective endocarditis. N Eng J Med 2012, 366:2466-2473.
138. Misra UK, Kalita J, Nair PP Role of aspirin in tuberculous meningitis: a randomized open label placebo controlled trial. J Neurol Sci 2010, 293:12-17.
139. Carod-Artal FJ, Gascon J Chagas disease and stroke. Lancet Neurol 2010, 9:533-542.
140. Sousa AS, Xavier SS, Freitas GR, Hasslocher-Moreno A Prevention strategies of cardioembolic ischemic stroke in Chagas' disease. Arq Bras Cardiol 2008, 91:280-284.
141. Hill AB The environment and disease: association or causation?. Proc R Soc Med 1965, 58:295-300.
142. Mateen FJ, Dierkhising RA, Rabinstein AA, van de Beek D, Wijdicks EF Neurological complications following adult lung transplantation. Am J Transplant 2010, 10:908-1014.
143. Colombari RC, de Ataide EC, Udo EY, Falcão AL, Martins LC, Boin IF Neurological complications prevalence and long-term survival after liver transplantation. Transplant Proc 2013, 45:1126-1129.