Tracking the global generation and exports of e-waste. Do existing estimates add up?

Environmental Science and Technology

Volumn 48, Issue 15, 2014, Pages 8735-8743

  Breivik, Knut ^a,b   Armitage, James M ^c   Wania, Frank ^c   Jones, Kevin C ^d  

^a NORWEGIAN INSTITUTE FOR AIR RESEARCH   (Norway)

^b UNIVERSITY OF OSLO   (Norway)

^c UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO   (Canada)

^d LANCASTER UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL EFFECTS; WASTES;

DEVELOPING REGIONS; E-WASTES; ELECTRICAL APPLIANCES; GLOBAL TRANSPORT; GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCTS; NON-OECD COUNTRIES; OECD COUNTRIES; ORGANIZATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND DEVELOPMENT;

UNCERTAINTY ANALYSIS;

ARTICLE; BENIN; CHINA; COMPUTER; COTE D'IVOIRE; ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT; ELECTRONIC WASTE; GHANA; GROSS NATIONAL PRODUCT; INDIA; LIBERIA; MOBILE PHONE; NIGERIA; RECYCLING; WASTE DISPOSAL; AFRICA; COMMERCIAL PHENOMENA; DEVELOPING COUNTRY; DEVICES; ELECTRONICS; STATISTICS AND NUMERICAL DATA;

AFRICA, WESTERN; CHINA; COMMERCE; DEVELOPING COUNTRIES; ELECTRONIC WASTE; ELECTRONICS; INDIA;

EID: 84905668399     PISSN: 0013936X     EISSN: 15205851     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1021/es5021313     Document Type: Article

References (98)

1. Robinson, B. H. E-waste: An assessment of global production and environmental impacts Sci. Total Environ. 2009, 408, 183-191
2. UNEP, E-waste, The Hidden Side of IT Equipment's Manufacturing and Use. Environmental Alert Bulletin. United Nations Environment Programme: 2005.
3. Puckett, J.; Byster, L.; Westervelt, S.; Gutierrez, R.; Davis, S.; Hussain, A.; Dutta, M. Exporting Harm. The High-Tech Trashing of Asia; The Basel Action Network (BAN): 2002.
4. Grossman, E. High Tech Trash: Digital Devices, Hidden Toxics, and Human Health; First Island Press paperback ed.: Washington, DC, 2006.
5. Iles, A. Mapping environmental justice in technology flows: Computer waste impacts in Asia Global Environ. Politics 2004, 4, 76-107
6. Williams, E.; Kahhat, R.; Allenby, B.; Kavazanjian, E.; Kim, J.; Xu, M. Environmental, social, and economic implications of global reuse and recycling of personal computers Environ. Sci. Technol. 2008, 42, 6446-6454
7. Lepawsky, J.; Billah, M. Making chains that (un)make things: Waste-Value relations and the Bangladeshi rubbish electronics industry Geografiska Annaler Ser. B-Human Geogr. 2011, 93B, 121-139
8. Chen, W. Q.; Graedel, T. E. Anthropogenic cycles of the elements: A critical review Environ. Sci. Technol. 2012, 46, 8574-8586
9. Yamasue, E.; Nakajima, K.; Daigo, I.; Hashimoto, S.; Okumura, H.; Ishihara, K. N. Evaluation of the potential amounts of dissipated rare metals from WEEE in Japan Mater. Trans. 2007, 48, 2353-2357
10. Zhang, K.; Schnoor, J. L.; Zeng, E. Y. E-Waste recycling: Where does it go from here? Environ. Sci. Technol. 2012, 46, 10861-10867
11. Ni, H. G.; Zeng, E. Y. Law enforcement and global collaboration are the keys to containing e-waste tsunami in China Environ. Sci. Technol. 2009, 43, 3991-3994
12. Tsydenova, O.; Bengtsson, M. Chemical hazards associated with treatment of waste electrical and electronic equipment Waste Manage. 2011, 31, 45-58
13. Wong, M. H.; Wu, S. C.; Deng, W. J.; Yu, X. Z.; Luo, Q.; Leung, A. O. W.; Wong, C. S. C.; Luksemburg, W. J.; Wong, A. S. Export of toxic chemicals-A review of the case of uncontrolled electronic-waste recycling Environ. Pollut. 2007, 149, 131-140
14. Leung, A. O. W.; Duzgoren-Aydin, N. S.; Cheung, K. C.; Wong, M. H. Heavy metals concentrations of surface dust from e-waste recycling and its human health implications in southeast China Environ. Sci. Technol. 2008, 42, 2674-2680
15. Zheng, L. K.; Wu, K. S.; Li, Y.; Qi, Z. L.; Han, D.; Zhang, B.; Gu, C. W.; Chen, G. J.; Liu, J. X.; Chen, S. J.; Xu, X. J.; Huo, X. Blood lead and cadmium levels and relevant factors among children from an e-waste recycling town in China Environ. Res. 2008, 108, 15-20
16. Zhao, G.; Zhou, H.; Wang, Z. Concentrations of selected heavy metals in food from four e-waste disassembly localities and daily intake by local residents J. Environ. Sci. Health, Part A 2010, 45, 824-835
17. Zhang, S.; Xu, X.; Wu, Y.; Ge, J.; Li, W.; Huo, X. Polybrominated diphenyl ethers in residential and agricultural soils from an electronic waste polluted region in South China: Distribution, compositional profile, and sources Chemosphere 2014, 102, 55-60
18. Chen, S.-J.; Tian, M.; Wang, J.; Shi, T.; Luo, Y.; Luo, X.-J.; Mai, B.-X. Dechlorane Plus (DP) in air and plants at an electronic waste (e-waste) site in South China Environ. Pollut. 2011, 159, 1290-1296
19. Tian, M.; Chen, S.-J.; Wang, J.; Zheng, X.; Luo, X.-J.; Mai, B.-X. Brominated flame retardants in the atmosphere of e-waste and rural sites in Southern China: Seasonal variation, temperature dependence, and air-particle partitioning. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2011.
20. Xing, G. H.; Liang, Y.; Chen, L. X.; Wu, S. C.; Wong, M. H. Exposure to PCBs, through inhalation, dermal contact and dust ingestion at Taizhou, China-A major site for recycling transformers Chemosphere 2011, 83, 605-611
21. Breivik, K.; Gioia, R.; Chakraborty, P.; Zhang, G.; Jones, K. C. Are reductions in industrial organic contaminants emissions in rich countries achieved prtly by export of toxic wastes? Environ. Sci. Technol. 2011, 45, 9154-9160
22. Guan, Y. F.; Wang, J. Z.; Ni, H. G.; Luo, X. J.; Mai, B. X.; Zeng, E. Y. Riverine inputs of polybrominated diphenyl ethers from the Pearl River Delta (China) to the coastal ocean Environ. Sci. Technol. 2007, 41, 6007-6013
23. Li, H.; Yu, L.; Sheng, G.; Fu, J.; Peng, P. A. Severe PCDD/F and PBDD/F pollution in air around an electronic waste dismantling area in China Environ. Sci. Technol. 2007, 41, 5641-5646
24. Gonzalez, M. J.; Jimenez, B.; Fernandez, M.; Hernandez, L. M. PCBs, PCDDs and PCDFs in soil samples from uncontrolled burning of waste electrical material for metal reclamation Toxicol. Environ. Chem. 1991, 33, 169-179
25. Yu, X. Z.; Gao, Y.; Wu, S. C.; Zhang, H. B.; Cheung, K. C.; Wong, M. H. Distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in soils at Guiyu area of China, affected by recycling of electronic waste using primitive technologies Chemosphere 2006, 65, 1500-1509
26. Bi, X. H.; Thomas, G. O.; Jones, K. C.; Qu, W. Y.; Sheng, G. Y.; Martin, F. L.; Fu, J. M. Exposure of electronics dismantling workers to polybrominated diphenyl ethers, polychlorinated biphenyls, and organochlorine pesticides in South China Environ. Sci. Technol. 2007, 41, 5647-5653
27. Salehabadi, D. Transboundary Movements of Discarded Electrical and Electronic Equipment; Green Paper #5; 25 March 2013, 2013.
28. Lepawsky, J.; McNabb, C. Mapping international flows of electronic waste Can. Geogr.-Geogr. Can. 2010, 54, 177-195
29. Miller, T. R.; Gregory, J.; Duan, H.; Kirchain, R.; Linnell, J. Characterizing Transboundary Flows of Used Electronics: Summary Report; Massachusetts Institute of Technology: 2012; p 102.
30. Zoeteman, B. C. J.; Krikke, H. R.; Venselaar, J. Handling WEEE waste flows: On the effectiveness of producer responsibility in a globalizing world Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 2010, 47, 415-436
31. EU, Directive 2002/96/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 January 2003 on waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) (OJ L 37), 13 February 2003. In 2002.
32. EU, Directive 2012/19/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 4 July 2012 on waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) (OJ L 197/38), 24 July 2012. In 2012.
33. Ongondo, F. O.; Williams, I. D.; Cherrett, T. J. How are WEEE doing? A global review of the management of electrical and electronic wastes Waste Manage. 2011, 31, 714-730
34. Huisman, J.; Magalini, F.; Kuehr, R.; Maurer, C.; Ogilve, S.; Poll, J.; Delgado, C.; Artim, E.; Szlezak, J.; Stevels, A. 2008 Review of Directive 2002/96 on Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE). Final Report; United Nations University: 2007; p 347.
35. World DataBank. http://databank.worldbank.org/data/home.aspx (accessed September 3, 2013).
36. Wang, F.; Huisman, J.; Stevels, A.; Balde, C. P. Enhancing e-waste estimates: Improving data quality by multivariate input-output analysis Waste Manage. 2013, 33, 2397-2407
37. Saphores, J. D. M.; Nixon, H.; Ogunseitan, O. A.; Shapiro, A. A. How much e-waste is there in US basements and attics? Results from a national survey J. Environ. Manage. 2009, 90, 3322-3331
38. Shinkuma, T.; Huong, N. T. M. The flow of e-waste material in the Asian region and a reconsideration of international trade policies on e-waste Environ. Impact Assess. Rev. 2009, 29, 25-31
39. Ni, H. G.; Zeng, H.; Tao, S.; Zeng, E. Y. Environmental and human exposure to persistent halogenated compounds derived from e-waste in China Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 2010, 29, 1237-1247
40. Yu, J. L.; Williams, E.; Ju, M. T.; Shao, C. F. Managing e-waste in China: Policies, pilot projects and alternative approaches Resour., Conserv. Recycl. 2010, 54, 991-999
41. Wei, L.; Liu, Y. Present Status of e-waste disposal and recycling in China Procedia Environ. Sci. 2012, 16, 506-514
42. Zhou, L.; Xu, Z. M. Response to waste electrical and electronic equipments in China: Legislation, recycling system, and advanced integrated process Environ. Sci. Technol. 2012, 46, 4713-4724
43. 2.5 at an electronic waste recycling site in southeast China Atmos. Environ. 2006, 40, 6945-6955
44. Wang, L. L.; Hou, M. L.; An, J.; Zhong, Y. F.; Wang, X. T.; Wang, Y. J.; Wu, M. H.; Bi, X. H.; Sheng, G. Y.; Fu, J. M. The cytotoxic and genetoxic effects of dust and soil samples from E-waste recycling area on L02 cells Toxicol. Ind. Health 2011, 27, 831-839
45. Wong, C. S. C.; Wu, S. C.; Duzgoren-Aydin, N. S.; Aydin, A.; Wong, M. H. Trace metal contamination of sediments in an e-waste processing village in China Environ. Pollut. 2007, 145, 434-442
46. Li, Y.; Xu, X.; Wu, K.; Chen, G.; Liu, J.; Chen, S.; Gu, C.; Zhang, B.; Zheng, L.; Zheng, M.; Huo, X. Monitoring of lead load and its effect on neonatal behavioral neurological assessment scores in Guiyu, an electronic waste recycling town in China J. Environ. Monit. 2008, 10, 1233-1238
47. Wang, D.; Cai, Z.; Jiang, G.; Leung, A.; Wong, M. H.; Wong, W. K. Determination of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in soil and sediment from an electronic waste recycling facility Chemosphere 2005, 60, 810-816
48. Chan, J. K. Y.; Man, Y. B.; Wu, S. C.; Wong, M. H. Dietary intake of PBDEs of residents at two major electronic waste recycling sites in China Sci. Total Environ. 2013, 463-464, 1138-46
49. Yu, Z.; Lu, S.; Gao, S.; Wang, J.; Li, H.; Zeng, X.; Sheng, G.; Fu, J. Levels and isomer profiles of dechlorane plus in the surface soils from e-waste recycling areas and industrial areas in South China Environ. Pollut. 2010, 158, 2920-2925
50. Wu, K.; Xu, X.; Peng, L.; Liu, J.; Guo, Y.; Huo, X. Association between maternal exposure to perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) from electronic waste recycling and neonatal health outcomes Environ. Int. 2012, 48, 1-8
51. Huo, X.; Peng, L.; Xu, X. J.; Zheng, L. K.; Qiu, B.; Qi, Z. L.; Zhang, B.; Han, D.; Piao, Z. X. Elevated blood lead levels of children in Guiyu, an electronic waste recycling town in China Environ. Health Perspect. 2007, 115, 1113-1117
52. Zheng, G. J.; Leung, A. O. W.; Jiao, L. P.; Wong, M. H. Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans pollution in China: Sources, environmental levels and potential human health impacts Environ. Int. 2008, 34, 1050-1061
53. Yang, J.; Lu, B.; Xu, C. WEEE flow and mitigating measures in China Waste Manage. 2008, 28, 1589-1597
54. He, M.-J.; Luo, X.-J.; Yu, L.-H.; Liu, J.; Zhang, X.-L.; Chen, S.-J.; Chen, D.; Mai, B.-X. Tetrabromobisphenol-A and hexabromocyclododecane in birds from an e-waste region in South China: Influence of diet on diastereoisomer- and enantiomer-specific distribution and trophodynamics Environ. Sci. Technol. 2010, 44, 5748-5754
55. Hu, J.; Xiao, X.; Peng, P. A.; Huang, W.; Chen, D.; Cai, Y. Spatial distribution of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzo-furans (PCDDs/Fs) in dust, soil, sediment and health risk assessment from an intensive electronic waste recycling site in Southern China Environ. Sci.: Processes Impacts 2013, 15, 1889-1896
56. Luo, X.-J.; Liu, J.; Luo, Y.; Zhang, X.-L.; Wu, J.-P.; Lin, Z.; Chen, S.-J.; Mai, B.-X.; Yang, Z.-Y. Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in free-range domestic fowl from an e-waste recycling site in South China: Levels, profile and human dietary exposure Environ. Int. 2009, 35, 253-258
57. Chan; Xing, G. H.; Xu, Y.; Liang, Y.; Chen, L. X.; Wu, S. C.; Wong, C. K. C.; Leung, C. K. M.; Wong, M. H. Body loadings and health risk assessment of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans at an intensive electronic waste recycling site in China Environ. Sci. Technol. 2007, 41, 7668-7674
58. Ma, J.; Kannan, K.; Cheng, J.; Hori, Y.; Wu, Q.; Wang, W. Concentrations, profiles, and estimated human exposures for polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans from electronic waste recycling facilities and a chemical industrial complex in Eastern China Environ. Sci. Technol. 2008, 42, 8252-8259
59. Zhang, T.; Huang, Y. R.; Chen, S. J.; Liu, A. M.; Xu, P. J.; Li, N.; Qi, L.; Ren, Y.; Zhou, Z. G.; Mai, B. X. PCDD/Fs, PBDD/Fs, and PBDEs in the air of an e-waste recycling area (Taizhou) in China: Current levels, composition profiles, and potential cancer risks J. Environ. Monit. 2012, 14, 3156-3163
60. Fu, J. J.; Wang, T.; Wang, P.; Qu, G. B.; Wang, Y. W.; Zhang, Q. H.; Zhang, A. Q.; Jiang, G. B. Temporal trends (2005-2009) of PCDD/Fs, PCBs, PBDEs in rice hulls from an e-waste dismantling area after stricter environmental regulations Chemosphere 2012, 88, 330-335
61. Fu, J. J.; Zhang, A. Q.; Wang, T.; Qu, G. B.; Shao, J. J.; Yuan, B.; Wang, Y. W.; Jiang, G. B. Influence of e-waste dismantling and its regulations: Temporal trend, Spatial distribution of heavy metals in rice grains, and its potential health risk Environ. Sci. Technol. 2013, 47, 7437-7445
62. Tong, X.; Wang, J. C. Transnational flows of e-waste and spatial patterns of recycling in China Eurasian Geogr. Economics 2004, 45, 608-621
63. Yang, Q. Y.; Qiu, X. H.; Li, R.; Liu, S. S.; Li, K. Q.; Wang, F. F.; Zhu, P.; Li, G.; Zhu, T. Exposure to typical persistent organic pollutants from an electronic waste recycling site in Northern China Chemosphere 2013, 91, 205-211
64. Li, Y.; Duan, Y.-P.; Huang, F.; Yang, J.; Xiang, N.; Meng, X.-Z.; Chen, L. Polybrominated diphenyl ethers in e-waste: Level and transfer in a typical e-waste recycling site in Shanghai, Eastern China Waste Manage. 2014, 34, 1059-1065
65. Li, R.; Yang, Q.; Qiu, X.; Li, K.; Li, G.; Zhu, P.; Zhu, T. Reactive oxygen species alteration of immune cells in local residents at an electronic waste recycling site in Northern China Environ. Sci. Technol. 2013, 47, 3344-3352
66. Jinglei, Y.; Meiting, J.; Williams, E. In Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Recycling in China: Practices and Strategies; Sustainable Systems and Technology, 2009. ISSST ′09. IEEE International Symposium on 18-20 May 2009, 2009; 2009; pp 1-1.
67. Eugster, M.; Huabo, D.; Jinhui, L.; Perera, O.; Potts, A.; Yang, W. Sustainable Electronics and Electrical Equipment for China and the World. A commodity chain sustainability analysis of key Chinese EEE product chains; International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD): Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada, 2008; p 83.
68. Wang, F.; Kuehr, R.; Ahlquist, D.; Li, J. E-waste in China: A country report. StEP Green Paper Series; United Nations University: 2013.
69. Schluep, M.; Hagelueken, C.; Kuehr, R.; Magalini, F.; Maurer, C.; Meskers, C.; Mueller, E.; Wang, F. Recycling-from E-waste to Resources; StEP Solving the e-waste problem: July, 2009; p 120.
70. Liu, X. B.; Tanaka, M.; Matsui, Y. Generation amount prediction and material flow analysis of electronic waste: a case study in Beijing, China Waste Manage. Res. 2006, 24, 434-445
71. Lin, Y.; Zhao, Y.; Qiu, X.; Ma, J.; Yang, Q.; Shao, M.; Zhu, T. Spatial distribution of polychlorinated naphthalenes in the atmosphere across North China based on gridded field observations Environ. Pollut. 2013, 180, 27-33
72. Xue, M. Q.; Li, J.; Xu, Z. M. Management strategies on the industrialization road of state-of-the-art technologies for e-waste recycling: The case study of electrostatic separation-a review Waste Manage. Res. 2013, 31, 130-140
73. Zhao, Y. F.; Ma, J.; Qiu, X. H.; Lin, Y.; Yang, Q. Y.; Zhu, T. Gridded field observations of polybrominated diphenyl ethers and decabromodiphenyl ethane in the atmosphere of North China Environ. Sci. Technol. 2013, 47, 8123-8129
74. Sinha, S.; Mahesh, P.; Donders, E.; Van Breusegem, W. Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment. The EU and India: Sharing Best Practices; European Union. Delegation of the European Union to India: Delhi, India, 2011.
75. Sthiannopkao, S.; Wong, M. H. Handling e-waste in developed and developing countries: Initiatives, practices, and consequences Sci. Total Environ. 2013, 463, 1147-1153
76. Agarwal, R.; Ranjan, R.; Sarkar, P. Scrapping the Hi-tech Myth: Computer Waste in India; Toxics Link: New Delhi, 2003; p 57.
77. Mahesh, P. E-waste: WEEE: Other Side of the Digital Revolution; Toxics Link: New Delhi, India, November 2007, 2007; p 6.
78. Manomaivibool, P. Extended producer responsibility in a non-OECD context: The management of waste electrical and electronic equipment in India Resour., Conserv. Recycl. 2009, 53, 136-144
79. Manomaivibool, P.; Lindhqvist, T.; Tojo, N. Extended Producer Responsibility in a Non-OECD Context: The Management of Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment in India; Lund University: Lund, Sweden, August, 2007; p 52.
80. Schluep, M.; Manhart, A.; Osibanjo, O.; Rochat, D.; Isarin, N.; Mueller, E. Where are WEee in Africa? Findings from the Basel Convention E-waste Africa Programme; Secretariat of the Basel Convention: Châtelaine, Switzerland, 2011.
81. Ogungbuyi, O.; Nnorom, I. C.; Osibanjo, O.; Schluep, M. e-Waste Country Assessment Nigeria; Basel Convention Coordinating Center for Africa (BCCC), Empa: Ibadan/Nigeria & St. Gallen/Switzerland, 2012; p 94.
82. Nnorom, I. C.; Osibanjo, O. Electronic waste (e-waste): Material flows and management practices in Nigeria Waste Manage. 2008, 28, 1472-1479
83. Frandsen, D. M.; Rasmussen, J.; Swart, M. U. What a Waste-How your Computer Causes Health Problems in Ghana; DanWatch: Copenhagen, Denmark, 2011; p 31.
84. Li, J. H.; Lopez, N. B. N.; Liu, L. L.; Zhao, N. N.; Yu, K. L.; Zheng, L. X. Regional or global WEEE recycling. Where to go? Waste Manage. 2013, 33, 923-934
85. Manomaivibool, P.; Lindhqvist, T.; Tojo, N. Extended Produce Responsibility in a Non-OECD Context. The Management of Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment in Thailand; Lund University: Lund, Sweden, May, 2009.
86. La Guardia, M. J.; Hale, R. C.; Newman, B. Brominated flame-retardants in Sub-Saharan Africa: Burdens in inland and coastal sediments in the eThekwini Metropolitan Municipality, South Africa Environ. Sci. Technol. 2013, 47, 9643-9650
87. Hicks, C.; Dietmar, R.; Eugster, M. The recycling and disposal of electrical and electronic waste in China - legislative and market responses Environ. Impact Assess. Rev. 2005, 25, 459-471
88. EPA, Management of Electronic Waste in the United States: Approach Two. Draft Final Report; EPA530-R-07-004b; United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA): 2007.
89. Kahhat, R.; Kim, J.; Xu, M.; Allenby, B.; Williams, E.; Zhang, P. Exploring e-waste management systems in the United States Resour., Conserv. Recycl. 2008, 52, 955-964
90. Kahhat, R.; Williams, E. Materials flow analysis of e-waste: Domestic flows and exports of used computers from the United States Resour., Conserv. Recycl. 2012, 67, 67-74
91. USITC, UsedElectronic Products: An Examination of U.S. Exports. In Commission,U. S. I. T., Ed.; Washington, DC, (2013.
92. Duan, H.; Miller, R.; Gregory, J.; Kirchain, R. Quantitative Characterization of Domestic and Transboundary Flows of Used Electronics. Analysis of Generation, Collection, and Export in the United States; Massachusetts Institute of Technology: December 2013, 2013; p 121.
93. Duan, H.; Miller, T. R.; Gregory, J.; Kirchain, R. Quantifying export flows of used electronics: Advanced methods to resolve used goods within trade data Environ. Sci. Technol. 2014, 48, 3263-3271
94. EEA, Movements of Waste Across the EU's Internal and External Borders; European Environment Agency: Copenhagen, Denmark, 2012; p 36.
95. Maxwell, D. Mapping the environmental impacts, interventions & evidence requirements for the TV roadmap; Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA): London, UK, 2007; p 32.
96. Lau, W. K.-Y.; Chung, S.-S.; Zhang, C. A material flow analysis on current electrical and electronic waste disposal from Hong Kong households Waste Manage. 2013, 33, 714-721
97. EIA, System Failure: The UK's Harmful Trade in Electronic Waste; Environmental Investigation Agency (EIA): London, UK, 2011; p 13.
98. StEP World E-Waste Map Reveals National Volumes, International Flows. http://www.step-initiative.org/index.php/newsdetails/items/world-e-waste-map- reveals-national-volumes-international-flows.html (accessed January 23, 2014).