An ocean of surprises - trends in human use, unexpected dynamics and governance challenges in areas beyond national jurisdiction

Global Environmental Change

Volumn 27, Issue 1, 2014, Pages 19-31

  Merrie, Andrew ^a   Dunn, Daniel C ^b   Metian, Marc ^a   Boustany, Andre M ^b   Takei, Yoshinobu ^c   Elferink, Alex Oude ^d,e   Ota, Yoshitaka ^f   Christensen, Villy ^f   Halpin, Patrick N ^b   Österblom, Henrik ^a  

^a STOCKHOLM UNIVERSITY   (Sweden)

^b DUKE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF KIEL   (Germany)

^d UTRECHT UNIVERSITY   (Netherlands)

^e UNIVERSITY OF TROMSØ   (Norway)

^f UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA   (Canada)

Author keywords

Areas beyond national jurisdiction; Fisheries; High seas; Marine ecosystems; Ocean governance; Surprise

Indexed keywords

ADAPTIVE MANAGEMENT; ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION; GOVERNANCE APPROACH; MARINE ECOSYSTEM; TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT;

EID: 84905163903     PISSN: 09593780     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2014.04.012     Document Type: Article

References (116)

1. Agnew D.J., Pearce J., Pramod G., Peatman T., Watson R., Beddington J.R., Pitcher T.J. Estimating the worldwide extent of illegal fishing. PLoS ONE 2009, 4(2):e4570.
2. Amanatidou E., Butter M., Carabias V., Könnölä T., Leis M., Saritas O., Schaper-Rinkel P., van Rij V. On concepts and methods in horizon scanning: lessons from initiating policy dialogues on emerging issues. Sci. Public Policy 2012, 39:208-221.
3. Anonymous Dredging Today: Bulk Cutter Arrives at Tyneside (UK) 2013, [press release] July 3rd, 2013; available at: http://www.dredgingtoday.com/2013/07/03/smd-bulk-cutter-arrives-at-tyneside-uk/ (accessed 12.09.13).
4. Arnaud-Haond S., Arrieta J.M., Duarte C.M. Marine biodiversity and gene patents. Science 2011, 331(6024):1521-1522.
5. Arrieta J.M., Arnaud-Haond S., Duarte C.M. What lies underneath: conserving the oceans' genetic resources. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2010, 107(43):18318-18324.
6. Bachmayer R., Humphris S., Fornari D., Van Dover C., Howland J., Bowen A., Elder R.L., Crook T., Gleason D.E., Sellers W.J., Lerner S. Oceanographic research using remotely operated underwater robotic vehicles: exploration of hydrothermal vent sites on the Mid-Atlantic ridge at 37°North 32°West. Mar. Technol. Soc. J. 1998, 32(3):37-47.
7. Ban N.C., Bax N.J., Gjerde K.M., Devillers R., Dunn D.C., Dunstan P.K., Hobday A.J., Maxwell S.M., Kaplan D.M., Pressey R.L., Ardron J.A., Game E.T., Halpin P.N. Systematic conservation planning: a better recipe for managing the high seas for biodiversity conservation and sustainable use. Conserv. Lett. 2014, 7:41-54. 10.1111/conl.12010.
8. Barbier E.B., Moreno-Mateos D., Rogers A.D., Aronson J., Pendleton L., Danovaro R., Henry L., Morato T., Ardron J., Van Dover C.L. Ecology: protect the deep sea. Nature 2014, 505:475-476.
9. 2-release experiments simulating deep-sea carbon sequestration. Deep Sea Res. Part II 2013, 92:249-260.
10. Bavinck M. The Megaengineering of Ocean Fisheries: a century of expansion and rapidly closing frontiers. Engineering Earth 2011, Springer Science and Business Media, New York. S. Brunn (Ed.).
11. Berkes F., Hughes T.P., Steneck R.S., Wilson J.A., Bellwood D.R., Crona B., Folke C., Gunderson L.H., Leslie H.M., Norberg J., Nyström M., Olsson P., Österblom H., Scheffer M., Worm B. Globalization, roving bandits, and marine resources. Science 2006, 311:1557-1558.
12. Beveridge M., Thilsted S., Phillips M., Metian M., Troell M., Hall S. Meeting the food and nutrition needs of the poor: the role of fish and the opportunities and challenges emerging from the rise of aquaculture. J. Fish Biol. 2013, 83:1067-1084.
13. Blight L.K., Ainley D.G., Ackley S.F., Ballard G., Ballerini T., Brownell R.L., Christina-Cheng C.H., Chiantore M., Costa D., Coulter M.C., Dayton P., Devries A.L., Dunbar R., Earle S., Eastman J.T., Emslie S.D., Evans C.W., Garrott R.A., Kim S., Kooyman G., Lescroël A., Lizotte M., Massaro M., Olmastroni S., Ponganis P.J., Russell J., Siniff D.B., Smith W.O., Stewart B.S., Stirling I., Willis J., Wilson P., Woehler E.J. Fishing for data in the Ross sea. Science 2010, 330(6009):1316.
14. Bodin Ö., Österblom H. International fisheries regime effectiveness - activities and resources of key actors in the southern ocean. Global Environ. Change 2013, 23:948-956.
15. Boehlert G.W. Current-topography interactions at mid-ocean seamounts and the impact on pelagic ecosystems. GeoJournal 1988, 16:45-52.
16. Boehlert G.W., Genin A. A review of the effects of seamounts on biological processes. Seamounts, islands, and atolls 1987, American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC. B. Keating, P. Fryer, R. Batiza, G. Boehlert (Eds.).
17. Carpenter S.R., Folke C., Scheffer M., Westley F. Resilience: accounting for the noncomputable. Ecol. Soc. 2009, 14:1-13.
18. Carter L., Burnett D., Drew S., Marle G., Hagadorn L., Bartlett-McNeil D., Irvine D. Submarine Cables and the Oceans - Connecting the World. UNEP-WCMC Biodiversity Series No. 31. ICPC/UNEP/UNEP-WCMC 2009.
19. Catul V., Gauns M., Karuppasamy P.K. A review of mesopelagic fishes belonging to family Myctophidae. Rev. Fish Biol. Fish. 2011, 21:339-354.
20. Clark M.R. Are deepwater fisheries sustainable? The example of orange roughy. Fish. Res. 2001, 51:123-135.
21. Clark M.R., Rowden A.A. Effect of deepwater trawling on the macro-invertebrate assemblages of seamounts on the Chatham Rise, New Zealand. Deep Sea Res. Part I 2009, 56:1540-1554.
22. Cobalt Development Institute (CDI) Cobalt Facts 2013, Available at: http://www.thecdi.com (accessed 12.09.13).
23. Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) Marine and coastal biodiversity: progress report on describing areas that meet the criteria for ecologically or biologically significant marine areas. UNEP/CBD/COP/11/22 2012, Available at: http://www.cbd.int/doc/meetings/cop/cop-11/official (accessed 12.09.13).
24. Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) Geoengineering in Relation to the Convention on Biological Diversity: Technical and Regulatory Matters, Montreal, Technical Series No. 66 2012, 152 p.
25. Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter (London Convention) 1972, Available at: http://www.imo.org/About/Conventions/ListOfConventions/Pages/Convention-on-the-Prevention-of-Marine-Pollution-by-Dumping-of-Wastes-and-Other-Matter.aspx (accessed 18.02.13).
26. Cowan D.A. The marine biosphere: a global resource for biotechnology. Mar. Biotechnol. 1997, 15:129-131.
27. de Forges R., Koslow J.A., Poore G.C.B. Diversity and endemism of the benthic seamount fauna in the southwest pacific. Nature 2000, 405:944-947.
28. de la Fayette L.A. A new regime for the conservation and sustainable use of marine biodiversity and genetic resources beyond the Limits of National Jurisdiction. Int. J. Mar. Coastal Law 2009, 24:221-280.
29. Deep Sea News, 2012. Available at: (accessed 18.09.13). http://deepseanews.com/2012/10/here-we-go-again-with-dumping-iron-into-the-ocean/.
30. Handbook of Research on Crisis Leadership in Organizations 2013, Edward Elgar Publishing Limited, Cheltenham, UK. A.J. DuBrin (Ed.).
31. Ardron J., Ban N.C., Bax N.J., Bernal P., Bograd S., Corrigan C., Dunstan P., Game E., Gjerde K., Grantham H., Halpin P.N., Harrison A.L., Hazen E., Lagabrielle E., Lascelles B., Maxwell S., McKenna S., Nicol S., Norse E., Palacios D., Reeve L., Shillinger G., Simard F., Sink K., Smith F., Spadone A., Würtz M. Ecologically or Biologically Significant Areas in the Pelagic Realm: Examples & Guidelines - Workshop Report 2011, IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. D.C. Dunn (Ed.).
32. Dunn D.C., Ardron J.M., Bax N.J., Bernal P., Cleary J., Cresswell I., Donnelly B., Dunstan P., Gjerde K.M., Johnson D., Kaschner K., Lascelles B., Rice J., von Nordheim H., Wood L., Halpin P.N. The Convention on Biological Diversity's Ecologically or Biologically Significant Areas: origins, development, and current status. Mar. Policy 2014, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2013.12.002 (in press).
33. European Commission (EC) Critical raw materials for the EU. Report of the Ad-hoc Working Group on defining critical raw materials 2010, 84 p.
34. Flothmann S., von Kistowski K., Dolan E., Lee E., Meere F., Album G. Closing loopholes: getting illegal fishing under control. Science 2010, 328(5983):1235-1236.
35. Formation Metals Cobalt Fact Sheet 2013 2013, Available at: http://www.formationmetals.com/i/pdf/factsheet_cobalt.pdf (accessed 25.09.13).
36. Folke C., Rockström J. Editorial: turbulent times. Global Environ. Change 2009, 19:1-3.
37. Galaz V. Geo-engineering, governance, and social-ecological systems: critical issues and joint research needs. Ecol. Soc. 2012, 17(1):1-24.
38. Galaz V., Moberg F., Olsson E.K., Paglia E., Parker C. Institutional and political leadership dimensions of cascading ecological crises. Public Adm. 2011, 89:361-380.
39. Gianni M., Simpson W. The Changing Nature of High Seas Fishing: How Flags of Convenience Provide Cover for Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing 2005, Australian Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry, International Transport Workers' Federation, and WWF International, Available at: http://www.wwf.org.uk/filelibrary/pdf/flagsofconvenience.pdf (accessed 12.09.13).
40. Gjerde K.M. Options for Addressing Regulatory and Governance Gaps in the International Regime for the Conservation and Sustainable Use of Marine Biodiversity in Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction. IUCN Marine Law and Policy Paper No. 2 2008, IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.
41. Gjerde K.M., Dotinga H., Hart S., Molenaar E., Rayfuse R., Warner R. Regulatory and Governance Gaps in the International Regime for the Conservation and Sustainable Use of Marine Biodiversity in Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction 2008, IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.
42. Glowka L. Genetic resources, marine scientific research and the international seabed area. Rev. Eur. Community Int. Environ. Law 1999, 8:56-66.
43. Godet L., Zelnio K.A., Van Dover C.L. Scientists as stakeholders in conservation of hydrothermal vents. Conserv. Biol. 2011, 25(2):214-222.
44. Goudey C.A. Innovation in high-seas aquaculture using aquaculture using mobile cages. Accenture Innovation Forum, Frankfurt, Germany January 2009, Available at: http://www.accenture.com/Microsites/innovation/forum2009/Documents/Clifford_A_Goudey_Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology.pdf (accessed 12.09.13).
45. Grotius H. Mare Liberum - Mare Liberum, sive de jure quod Batavis competit ad Indicana tcommercia dissertation (latin) Lodewijk Elzevir 1609.
46. Halpern B.S., Walbridge S., Selkoe K.A., Kappel C.V., Micheli F., D'Agrosa C., Bruno J.F., Casey K.S., Ebert C., Fox H.E., Fujita R., Heinemann D., Lenihan H.S., Madin E.M.P., Perry M.T., Selig E.R., Spalding M., Steneck R., Watson R. A Global map of human impact on marine ecosystems. Science 2008, 319(5865):948-952.
47. Hannesson R. Rights based fishing on the high seas: is it possible?. Mar. Policy 2011, 35(5):667-674.
48. Haasnoot M., Kwakkel J.H., Walker W.E., ter Maat J. Dynamic adaptive policy pathways: a method for crafting robust decisions for a deeply uncertain world. Global Environ. Change 2013, 23:485-498.
49. Hein J.R., Mizell K., Koschinsky A., Conrad T.A. Deep-ocean mineral deposits as a source of critical metals for high- and green-technology applications: comparison with land-based resources. Ore Geol. Rev. 2013, 51:1-14.
50. Helbing D. Globally networked risks and how to respond. Nature 2013, 497:51-59.
51. Houck O.A. Worst case and the deep-water horizon blowout: there ought to be a law. Tulane Environ. Law J. 2010, 24(1):1-18.
52. International Energy Agency (IEA) World Energy Outlook 2008 2008, OECD/IEA, Paris, France, Available at: http://www.worldenergyoutlook.org/media/weowebsite/2008-1994/weo2008.pdf (accessed 12.09.13).
53. International Maritime Organisation (IMO) International shipping facts and figures: Information resources on trade, safety, security, environment 2012, Available at: http://www.imo.org/KnowledgeCentre/ShipsAndShippingFactsAndFigures/TheRoleandImportanceofInternationalShipping/Documents/International%20Shipping%20-%20Facts%20and%20Figures.pdf (accessed 12.09.13).
54. International Seabed Authority (ISA) Cobalt-Rich Crust Mining Brochure/Fact Sheet 2008, International Seabed Authority, Available at: http://www.isa.org.jm/files/documents/EN/Brochures/ENG9.pdf (accessed 12.09.13).
55. International Seabed Authority (ISA) Regulations on Prospecting and Exploration for Cobalt-rich Ferromanganese Crusts in the Area. ISBA/18/A/11 Annex 2012, 48. International Seabed Authority, Kingston, Jamaica.
56. International Seabed Authority (ISA) Decision of the Assembly of the International Seabed Authority relating to the Regulations on Prospecting and Exploration for Cobalt-rich Ferromanganese Crusts in the Area. ISBA/18/A/11 2012, International Seabed Authority, Available at: http://www.isa.org.jm/en/sessions/2013/documents (accessed 12.09.13).
57. International Seabed Authority (ISA) Data aggregated from news reports on the ISA website 2013, Available at: http://www.isa.org.jm/en/home (accessed 01.09.13).
58. ITLOS, Seabed Disputes Chamber of the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea, Responsibilities and obligations of States sponsoring persons and entities with respect to activities in the Area. Advisory opinion of 1 February 2011, p. 205.
59. Klinger D., Naylor R. Searching for solutions in aquaculture: charting a sustainable course. Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour. 2012, 37:247-276.
60. Koslow J.A., Boehlert G.W., Gordon J.D.M., Haedrich R.L., Lorance P., Parin N. Continental slope and deep-sea fisheries: implications for a fragile ecosystem. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 2000, 57:548-557.
61. La Porte T.R., Consolini P.M. Working in practice but not in theory: theoretical challenges of "High-Reliability Organizations. J. Public Adm. Res. Theory 1991, 1:19-48.
62. La Porte T.R. High reliability organizations: unlikely, demanding and at risk. J. Conting. Crisis Manage. 1996, 4:60-71.
63. La Porte T.R. Contingencies and communications in cyberspace: the world wide web and non-hierarchical co-ordination. J. Conting. Crisis Manage. 1999, 7:215-224.
64. La Porte T.R. Organizational strategies for complex system resilience, reliability and adaptation. Seeds of Disaster, Roots of Response: How Private Action can Reduce Public Vulnerability 2006, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. P.E. Auerswald, L.M. Branscomb, T.M. La Porte, E.O. Michel-Kerjan (Eds.).
65. La Porte T.R. Critical infrastructure in the face of a predatory future: preparing for untoward surprises. J. Conting. Crisis Manage. 2007, 15:60-64.
66. La Porte T.R. Anticipating rude surprises - reflections on "Crisis Management" without end. Communicable Crises: Prevention, Response, and Recovery in the Global Arena 2007, Information Age Publishing, Charlotte, NC. D. Gibbons (Ed.).
67. Leary D., Vierros M., Hamon G., Arico S., Monagle C. Marine genetic resources: a review of scientific and commercial interest. Mar. Policy 2009, 33:183-194.
68. 2 problem. Climate Change 1977, 1:59-69.
69. Morato T., Hoyle S.D., Allain V., Nicol S.J. Seamounts are hotspots of pelagic biodiversity in the open ocean. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2010, 107:9707-9711.
70. Morato T., Pitcher T.J., Clark M.R., Menezes G., Tempera F., Porteiro F., Giacomello E., Santos R.S. Can we protect seamounts for research? A call for conservation. Oceanography 2010, 23(1):190-199.
71. Morato T., Watson R., Pitcher T.J., Pauly D. Fishing down the deep. Fish Fish. 2006, 7(1):24-34.
72. Myers R.A., Worm B. Rapid worldwide depletion of predatory fish communities. Nature 2006, 423:280-283.
73. Nicol S., Foster J., Kawaguchi S. The fishery for Antarctic krill - recent developments. Fish Fish. 2012, 13(1):30-40.
74. Norse E.A., Brooke S., Cheung W.W.L., Clark M.R., Ekeland I., Froese R., Gjerde K.M., Haedrich R.L., Heppell S.S., Morato T., Morgan L.E., Pauly D., Sumaila R., Watson R. Sustainability of deep-sea fisheries. Mar. Policy 2012, 36(2):307-320.
75. O'Hara T.D. Seamounts: centres of endemism or species richness for ophiuroids?. Global Ecol. Biogeogr. 2007, 16:720-732.
76. Olsson P., Galaz V. Social-ecological innovation and transformation. Social Innovation: Blurring Boundaries to Reconfigure Markets 2012, Palgrave MacMillan, Basingstoke, UK. A. Nicholls, A. Murdoch (Eds.).
77. Orr J.C., Fabry V.J., Aumont O., Bopp L., Doney S.C., Feely R.A. Anthropogenic ocean acidification over the twenty-first and its impact on calcifying organisms. Nature 2005, 437:681-686.
78. Österblom H. Catching up on fisheries crime. Conserv. Biol. 2014, Available online: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/cobi.12229/pdf (in press). 10.1111/cobi.12229.
79. Österblom H., Sissenwine M., Symes D., Kadin M., Daw T., Folke C. Incentives, social-ecological feedbacks and European fisheries. Mar. Policy 2011, 35:568-574.
80. Österblom H., Sumaila U.R. Toothfish crises, actor diversity and the emergence of compliance mechanisms in the Southern Ocean. Global Environ. Change 2011, 21:972-982.
81. Oude Elferink A.G. Governance principles for areas beyond national jurisdiction. Int. J. Mar. Coastal Law 2012, 27:205-259.
82. Papp J.F., Bray E.L., Edelstein D.L., Fenton M.D., Guberman D.E., Hedrick J.B., Jorgenson J.D., Kuck P.H., Shedd K.B., Tolcin A.C. Factors that Influence the Price of Al, Cd, Co, Cu, Fe, Ni, Pb, Rare Earth Elements, and Zn: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 1356 2008, USGS, USA.
83. Pauly D., Belhabib D., Blomeyer R., Cheung W.W.L., Cisneros-Montemayor A.M., Copeland D., Harper S., Lam V.W.Y., Mai Y., Le Manach F., Österblom H., Mok K.M., van der Meer L., Sanz A., Shon S., Sumaila U.R., Swartz W., Watson R., Zhai Y., Zeller D. China's distant-water fisheries in the 21st century. Fish Fish Early View 2013, 10.1111/faf.12032.
84. Pauly D., Christensen V., Guénette S., Pitcher T.J.P., Sumaila U., Walters C., Watson R., Zeller D. Towards sustainability in world fisheries. Nature 2002, 418:689-695.
85. Pitcher T.J., Bulman C. Raiding the larder: a quantitative evaluation framework and trophic signature for seamount food webs. Seamounts: Ecology, Fisheries and Conservation 2007, Blackwell Publishing, Oxford. T. Pitcher, T. Morato, P. Hart, M. Clark, N. Haggan, R. Santos (Eds.).
86. Ramirez-Llodra E., Brandt A., Danovaro R., De Mol B., Escobar E., German C.R., Levin L.A., Martinez Arbizu P., Menot L., Buhl-Mortensen P., Narayanaswamy B.E., Smith C.R., Tittensor D.P., Tyler P.A., Vanreusel A., Vecchione M. Deep, diverse and definitely different: unique attributes of the world's largest ecosystem. Biogeosciences 2010, 7(9):2851-2899.
87. Ramirez-Llodra E., Tyler P.A., Baker M.C., Bergstad O.A., Clark M.C., Escobar E., Levin L.A., Menot L., Rowden A.A., Smith C.R., Van Dover C.L. Man and the last great wilderness: human impact on the deep sea. PLoS ONE 2011, 6(8):e22588. 10.1371/journal.pone.0022588.
88. Rice J., Gjerde K.M., Ardron J.M., Arico S., Cresswell I., Escobar E., Grant S., Vierros M. Policy relevance of biogeographic classification for conservation and management of marine biodiversity beyond national jurisdiction, and the GOODS biogeographic classification. Ocean Coastal Manage. 2011, 54(2):110-122.
89. Rittel W.J.H., Webber M.M. Dilemmas in a general theory of planning. Policy Sci. 1973, 4:155-169.
90. Rockström J., Steffen W., Noone K., Persson Å., Chapin F.S., Lambin E.F., Lenton T.M., Scheffer M., Folke C., Schellnhuber H.J., Nykvist B., de Wit C.A., Hughes T., van der Leeuw S., Rodhe H., Sörlin S., Snyder P.K., Costanza R., Svedin U., Falkenmark M., Karlberg L., Corell R.W., Fabry V.J., Hansen J., Walker B.H., Liverman D., Richardson K., Crutzen P., Foley J.A. A safe operating space for Humanity. Nature 2009, 461:472-475.
91. Rogers A.D. The biology of seamounts. Adv. Mar. Biol. 1994, 30:305-350.
92. Roe E., Schulman P.R. High Reliability Management - Operating on the Edge 2008, Stanford University Press, Stanford, CA.
93. Royal Dutch Shell Perdido Development Project Site 2013, Available at: http://www.shell.com/global/aboutshell/major-projects-2/perdido.html (accessed 05.09.13).
94. Salpin C., Germani V. Patenting of research results related to genetic resources from Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction: the crossroads of the Law of the Sea and Intellectual Property Law. Rev. Eur. Community Int. Environ. Law 2007, 16:12-23.
95. Scheffer M., Carpenter S., Foley J.A., Folke C., Walker B. Catastrophic shifts in ecosystems. Nature 2001, 413:591-596.
96. Sea Around Us Project A Global Database on Marine Fisheries and Ecosystems 2013, Fisheries Centre, University British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, Available at: www.seaaroundus.org.
97. Sealy T. Soviet fisheries, a review. Mar. Fish. Rev. 1974, 36:5-22.
98. Sibert J., Hampton J., Kleiber P., Maunder M. Biomass, size and trophic status of top predators in the Pacific Ocean. Science 2006, 314:1773-1776.
99. Sumaila U.R., Alder J., Keith H. Global scope and economics of illegal fishing. Mar. Policy 2006, 30:696-703.
100. Schwartz P. The Art of the Long View: Planning for the future in an Uncertain World 1998, John Wiley & Sons Inc., Chichester, West Sussex.
101. Swart R.J., Raskin P., Robinson J. The problem of the future: sustainability science and scenario analysis. Global Environ. Change 2004, 14:137-146.
102. Tacon A.G.J., Metian M. Fish matters: importance of aquatic foods in Human nutrition and global food supply. Rev. Fish. Sci. 2013, 21(1):22-38.
103. Takei Y. Law and policy for International submarine cables: an Asia-Pacific perspective. Asian J. Int. Law 2012, 2(2):205-233.
104. Telegeography Submarine Cable Map website 2013, Available at: http://submarine-cable-map-2013.telegeography.com/ (accessed 12.09.13).
105. The Economist Free Exchange: The Humble Hero. May 18th 2013 2013, Available at: http://www.economist.com/news/finance-and-economics/21578041-containers-have-been-more-important-globalisation-freer-trade-humble (accessed 05.09.13).
106. Topper B., Lagadec P. Fractal crises - a new path for crisis theory and management. J. Conting. Crisis Manage. 2013, 21:4-16.
107. U.S.Geological Survey (USGS) Mineral commodity summaries 2013 2013, U.S. Geological Survey, 198 p.
108. UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, 1982. Adopted 10 December 1982, entered into force 16 November 1994. No. 31363.
109. UN General Assembly Resolution 2749 (XXV) Declaration of Principles Governing the Sea-Bed and the Ocean Floor, and the Subsoil Thereof, Beyond the Limits of National Jurisdiction. GAR 2749 1974.
110. UNEP/GRID-Arendal Continental Shelf: The Last Maritime Zone. Arendal, Norway: UNEP/GRID-Arendal 2011, Available at: http://www.grida.no/publications/shelf-last-zone/ (accessed 18.02.13).
111. Van Dover C.L. Ecology of mid-Atlantic Ridge hydrothermal vents. J. Geol. Soc. London (Special Publication) 1995, 87:257-294.
112. Van Dover C.L., Smith C.R., Ardron J., Dunn D.C., Gjerde K., Levin L., Smith S. Designating networks of chemosynthetic ecosystem reserves in the deep sea. Mar. Policy 2011, 36(2):378-381. Dinard Workshop Contributors.
113. Verne J. Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea 1870, PIerre-Jules Hetzel, France.
114. Villasante S., Morato T., Rodriguez-Gonzalez D., Antelo M., Österblom H., Watling L., Nouvian C., Gianni M., Macho G. Sustainability of deep-sea fish species under the European Union Common Fisheries Policy. Ocean Coastal Manage. 2012, 70:31-37.
115. Weick K.E., Sutcliffe K.M. Managing the Unexpected: Assuring High Performance in an Age of Complexity 2001, Jossey Bass, A Wiley Company, San Francisco, CA.
116. Wilburn D.R. Cobalt mineral exploration and supply from 1995 through 2013: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report: 5084 2011, 16 p.