Law and policy for international submarine cables: An asia-pacific perspective

Asian Journal of International Law

Volumn 2, Issue 2, 2012, Pages 205-233

  Takei, Yoshinobu ^a  

^a UTRECHT UNIVERSITY   (Netherlands)

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EID: 84893003409     PISSN: 20442513     EISSN: 20442521     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S204425131200001X     Document Type: Article

References (78)

1. "List of Facilities 'Vital to US Security' Leaked" BBC (6 December 2010), online: /www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-11923766S. (The news article includes a link to the Wikileaks website containing a copy of the diplomatic cable that indicates various submarine cables landing sites in its list.)
2. Oceans and the Law of the Sea, GA Res. 65/37A, UN Doc. A/RES/65/37A (2010), preambular para. 22.
3. Tara DAVENPORT, "Submarine Cables: Problems in Law and Practice", Centre for International Law, National University of Singapore, Working Paper, 2010.
4. See also Myres Smith MCDOUGAL and William T. BURKE, The Public Order of the Oceans: A Contemporary International Law of the Sea (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1962) at 781.
5. United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, 10 December 1982, 1833 U.N.T.S. 397 (entered into force 16 November 1994) [UNCLOS].
6. Convention on the High Seas, 29 April 1958, 450 U.N.T.S. 82 (entered into force 30 September 1962), arts. 2 and 2629 [HSC];
7. Convention on the Continental Shelf, 29 April 1958, 499 U.N.T.S. 312 (entered into force 10 June 1964), art. 4 [CSC].
8. Convention for the Protection of Submarine Telegraph Cables, 14 March 1884, (1901) 1 Australian Treaty Series (entered into force 1 May 1888) [1884 Convention].
9. www.doc.diplomatie.fr.
10. International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, attached to Convention on the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, 20 October 1972, 1050 U.N.T.S. 18 (entered into force 15 July 1977).
11. Protocol to the Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter of 29 December 1972, 7 November 1996, IMO Doc. LC/SM 1/6 (entered into force 24 March 2006), art. 1, para. 4.2.3 [1972 London Convention]
12. But see American Law Institute, ReStatement (Third) of Foreign Relations Law of the United States, vol. 1 (St. Paul, MN: American Law Institute Publishers, 1987), at Section 521, comment f ("the provisions of [the 1884 Convention] have been generally accepted as customary international law");
13. Eric WAGNER, "Submarine Cables and Protections Provided by the Law of the Sea" (1995) 19 Marine Policy 127 at 134.
14. Rainer LAGONI, Legal Aspects of Submarine High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) Cables (Hamburg: Lit, 1998) at 122.
15. www.jma.go.jp/jma/kishou/jma-magazine/0811/index.html#a
16. See e.g. "Iceland's Hot Rocks may be Power Source for UK" Times Online (13 May 2007), online: www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/article1782183. ece.
17. See e.g. Memorandum of Cooperation Between Okinawa and Hawaii on Clean Energy Development and Implementation, signed by the Ministry of Economy, Trade, and Industry (METI) of Japan, U.S. Department of Energy, Okinawa Prefecture, and the State of Hawaii on 17 June 2010, online: METI www.meti.go.jp/english/ press/data/20100617-02.html
18. Satya N. NANDAN and Shabtai ROSENNE, eds., United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 1982: A Commentary, vol. III (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1995) at 270.
19. See also Articles Concerning the Law of the Sea, adopted at the Eighth Session of the International Law Commission in 1956, Commentary on art. 27, para. 4 [ILC Articles on the Law of the Sea].
20. See e.g. Law No. 6 of 8 August 1996 Regarding Indonesian Waters (Indonesia), which refers to "submarine telecommunication cable" in art. 9 and to "sea cable" in general in art. 22(2), both in the context of archipelagic waters.
21. International Seabed Authority (ISA), Recommendations for the Guidance of the Contractors for the Assessment of the Possible Environmental Impacts Arising from Exploration for Polymetallic Nodules in the Area, 13 February 2002, ISA Doc. ISBA/7/LTC/1/Rev.1 (2002);
22. UNESCO Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage, 2 November 2001, (2002) 48 Law of the Sea Bulletin 29 (entered into force 2 January 2009), art. 1(1)(c).
23. C. John COLOMBOS, The International Law of the Sea, 6th rev. ed. (London: Longman, 1967) at 539.
24. Stuart KAYE, "International Measures to Protect Oil Platforms, Pipelines, and Submarine Cables from Attack" (2007) 31 Tulane Maritime Law Journal 377 at 401.
25. Jan M. SMITS, Legal Aspects of Implementing International Telecommunication Links: Institutions, Regulations and Instruments (Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1991) at 97.
26. United Nations, Oceans and the Law of the Sea, Report of the Secretary-General, UN Doc. A/59/62, 4 March 2004, para. 234;
27. www.ngo.grida.no/wwfneap/Publication/Submissions/OSPAR2010/ WWF-WG-Charlie2-Report.pdf
28. See Satya N. NANDAN and Shabtai ROSENNE, eds., United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 1982: A Commentary, vol. II (Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1993) at 911-15.
29. See also Regulations on Management of Laying Submarine Cables and Pipelines, adopted on 20 January 1989, art. 4(3)
30. The Territorial Waters, Continental Shelf, Exclusive Economic Zone and other Maritime Zones Act, 1976, Act No. 80 of 28 May 1976, s. 6(7)
31. Exclusive Economic Zone Act, 1984, Act No. 311
32. Territorial Waters and Maritime Zones Act, 1976 (22 December 1976), ss. 5(6) and 6(6).
33. Federal Law, on the Continental Shelf of the Russian Federation, adopted by the State Duma on 25 October 1995, arts. 6(20) and 22.
34. Telecommunications Act (S.C. 1993, c. 38), 23 June 1993, current to 30 November 2010, s. 17;
35. International Submarine Cable Licences Regulations (SOR/98-488, 1 October 1998)
36. Barbara KWIATKOWSKA, The 200 Mile Exclusive Economic Zone in the New Law of the Sea (Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1989) at 240
37. Edward Duncan BROWN, The International Law of the Sea, vol. I (Aldershot: Dartmouth, 1994) at 316-17;
38. Stuart KAYE, "The Protection of Platforms, Pipelines and Submarine Cables Under Australian and New Zealand Law" in Natalie KLEIN, Joanna MOSSOP, and Donald R. ROTHWELL, eds., Maritime Security: International Law and Policy Perspectives from Australia and New Zealand (London: Routledge, 2010), 186 at 200-1.
39. Ian BROWNLIE, Principles of Public International Law, 7th ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008) at 300-7.
40. See e.g. New Zealand's Public Act 1996 (NZ), Act No. 22 of 1996 [1996 New Zealand Act], ss. 4, 11, and 27;
41. United States Code, Title 47, ss. 21 and 33.
42. But see Australia's Telecommunications Act 1997 (Cth), Schedule 3A, Clauses 2 and 3628 [Australian Telecommunications Act 1997, Schedule 3A].
43. See e.g. Australia's Submarine Cables and Pipelines Protection Act 1963 (Cth), s. 7 [1963 Australian Act];
44. 1996 New Zealand Act, ss. 4 and 11;
45. United States Code, Title 47, ss. 21 and 33.
46. Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against the Safety of Maritime Navigation, 10 March 1988, 1678 U.N.T.S. 222 (entered into force 1 March 1992) [1988 SUA Convention].
47. See L. Dolliver M. NELSON, "Submarine Cables and Pipelines" in Rene-Jean DUPUY and Daniel VIGNES, eds., A Handbook on the New Law of the Sea (Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1991), 977 at 982.
48. Daniel Patrick O'CONNELL, The International Law of the Sea, vol. II (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984) at 820 and 823.
49. United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea, Geneva, 24 February227 April 1958, Official Records, vol. IV, at 88
50. http://untreaty.un.org/cod/diplomaticconferences/lawofthesea-1958/ 2nd-Cttee-vol-IV-e.html
51. See, for example, Cedric RYNGAERT, Jurisdiction in International Law (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008) at 109-10.
52. Bustamante Code, 13 February 1928, art. 308
53. See also Robert BECKMAN and Tara DAVENPORT, "Workshop Report", Workshop on Submarine Cables and Law of the Sea, 14-15 December 2009, Singapore, at 27, note 19 and its accompanying text;
54. Mick P. GREEN and Douglas R. BURNETT, "Security of International Submarine Cable Infrastructure: Time to Rethink?" in Myron H. NORDQUIST, Rudiger WOLFROM, John Norton MOORE, and Ronan LONG, eds., Legal Challenges in Maritime Security (Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2008), 557 at 578.
55. Most notably, Agenda 21: The United Nations Programme of Action from Rio, United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, UN Doc. A/CONF.151/26 (Vol. II) (1992), Chapter 17.
56. www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/560?OpenDocument
57. See also Malaysia's Continental Shelf Act 1966, Act No. 57 of 28 July 1966, as amended by Act No. 83 of 1972, s. 6(1)(j).
58. The amending Act was the Telecommunications and Other Legislation Amendment (Protection of Submarine Cables and Other Measures) Act 2005 (Cth), No. 104 of 2005.
59. www.acma.gov.au/WEB/STANDARD/pc5PC-100223
60. www.acma.gov.au/webwr/-assets/main/lib311258/acma-submarine-cables- report.pdf
61. The ten protected areas were already covered by the Submarine Cables and Pipelines Protection Order 1992 (NZ) as nine protected areas and one restricted area.
62. www.acma.gov.au/webwr/-assets/main/lib100668/acma-defence-mou-submarine- cpz.pdf
63. www.acma.gov.au/WEB/STANDARD/pc5PC-311993
64. ISA, Request for Observer Status in Accordance with Rule 82, Paragraph 1(e), of the Rules of Procedure of the Assembly on Behalf of the International Cable Protection Committee: Note by the Secretariat, 3 March 2010, ISA Doc. ISBA/16/A/INF/1 (2010), Annex.
65. www.oceansatlas.org/www.un-oceans.org/Index.htm
66. See Agreement for the Implementation of the Provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982 relating to the Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks, 4 August 1995, 2167 U.N.T.S. 88 (entered into force 11 December 2001), art. 36.
67. See The Netherlands (PTT) and the Post Office (London) v. Nedlloyd, 17 January 1977
68. See Arbitration Regarding the Iron Rhine ("Ijzeren Rijn") Railway between the Kingdom of Belgium and the Kingdom of the Netherlands, Award of the Arbitral Tribunal, 24 May 2005
69. www.pca-cpa.org/upload/files/BE-NL%20Award%20corrected%20200905.pdf
70. International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, 20 October 1972, 1050 U.N.T.S. 18 (entered into force 15 July 1977).
71. International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea, 1 November 1974, 1184 U.N.T.S. 278 (entered into force 25 May 1980).
72. Protocol of 2005 to the Protocol for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against the Safety of Fixed Platforms Located on the Continental Shelf, adopted by the IMO International Conference on the Revision of the SUA Treaties, 1 November 2005, IMO Doc. LEG/CONF.15/22.
73. Protocol for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against the Safety of Fixed Platforms Located on the Continental Shelf, 10 March 1988, 1678 U.N.T.S. 304 (entered into force 1 March 1992), art. 1(3).
74. Large-Scale Pelagic Drift-net Fishing and its Impact on the Living Marine Resources of the World's Oceans and Seas, GA Res. 44/225, UN Doc. A/RES/44/225 (1989);
75. Large-Scale Pelagic Drift-net Fishing and its Impact on the Living Marine Resources of the World's Oceans and Seas, GA Res. 46/215, UN Doc. A/RES/46/215 (1991).
76. Sustainable Fisheries, Including Through the 1995 Agreement for the Implementation of the Provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982 Relating to the Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks, and Related Instruments, GA Res. 61/105, UN Doc. A/RES/61/105 (2006) (paras. 80291);
77. Sustainable Fisheries, Including Through the 1995 Agreement for the Implementation of the Provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982 Relating to the Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks, and Related Instruments, GA Res. 64/72, UN Doc. A/RES/64/72 (2009), paras. 112230.
78. Report of the Outcomes of the Submarine Cable Information Sharing Workshop, Report of the Security and Prosperity Steering Group, Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, APEC Doc. 2009/TEL40/SPSG/010 (2009).