Cardiovascular pathophysiology in chronic kidney disease: Opportunities to transition from disease to health

Annals of Global Health

Volumn 80, Issue 1, 2014, Pages 69-76

  Tomey, Matthew I ^a   Winston, Jonathan A ^a  

^a MOUNT SINAI SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

Cardiorenal syndrome; Cardiovascular disease; Chronic kidney disease; Renocardiac syndrome

Indexed keywords

ALDOSTERONE; ANGIOTENSIN; POTASSIUM; RENIN; SODIUM; WATER; CALCIUM; PHOSPHORUS;

ADVERSE OUTCOME; ANEMIA; BONE METABOLISM; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE; FLUID BALANCE; HOMEOSTASIS; HUMAN; KIDNEY; MINERAL METABOLISM; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; RENIN ANGIOTENSIN ALDOSTERONE SYSTEM; REVIEW; SODIUM BALANCE; SYMPATHETIC TONE; UREMIA; BONE; CARDIORENAL SYNDROME; CHRONIC KIDNEY FAILURE; COMPLICATION; ELECTROLYTE BALANCE; METABOLISM; RISK FACTOR;

ANEMIA; BONE AND BONES; CALCIUM; CARDIO-RENAL SYNDROME; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES; HUMANS; PHOSPHORUS; POTASSIUM; RENAL INSUFFICIENCY, CHRONIC; RENIN-ANGIOTENSIN SYSTEM; RISK FACTORS; SODIUM; WATER-ELECTROLYTE BALANCE;

EID: 84904512246     PISSN: 22149996     EISSN: 22149996     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.aogh.2013.12.007     Document Type: Review

References (95)

1. Heidenreich PA, Trogdon JG, Khavjou OA, et al. Forecasting the future of CVD in the United States. A policy statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2011;123: 933-44.
2. Ronco C, Haapio M, House AA, Anavekar N, Bellomo R. Cardiorenal syndrome. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2008;52: 1527-39.
3. Krumholz HM, Wang Y, Drye EE, et al. Reduction in acute MI mortality in the United States. JAMA. 2009;302: 767-73.
4. U.S. Renal Data System. USRDS 2011 Annual Data Report: Atlas of Chronic Kidney Disease and End-Stage Renal Disease in the United States. National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, Bethesda, MD, 2011.
5. Adler AI, Stevens RJ, Manley SE, Bilous RW, Cull CA, Holman RR; UKPDS GROUP. Development and progression of nephropathy in type 2 diabetes: the United Kingdom Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS 64). Kidney Int. 2003;63: 225-32.
6. Freedman BI. End-stage renal failure in African Americans: insights in kidney disease susceptibility. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2002;17(2): 198-200.
7. Yancy CW, Wang TY, Ventura HO; credo Advisory Group. The Coalition to Reduce Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Cardiovascular Disease Outcomes (CREDO): why CREDO matters to cardiologists. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2011;57: 245-52.
8. Wilson PWF, D'Agostino RB, Levy D, et al. Prediction of coronary heart disease using risk factor categories. Circulation. 1998;97: 1837-47.
9. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Chronic Kidney Disease Fact Sheet: General Information and National Estimates on Chronic Kidney Disease in the United States, 2010. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, CDC; 2010.
10. Longenecker JC, Coresh J, Powe NR, et al. Traditional CVD risk factors in dialysis patients compared with the general population: the CHOICE study. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2002;13: 1918-27.
11. Weiner DE, Tighiouart H, Elsayed EF, et al. The Framingham predictive instrument in chronic kidney disease. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2007;50: 217-24.
12. Mason NA, Baille GR, Satayathum S, et al. HMG-coenzyme a reductase inhibitor use is associated with mortality reduction in hemodialysis patients. Am J Kidney Dis. 2005;45: 119-26.
13. Wanner C, Krane V, Marz W, et al; German Diabetes and Dialysis Study Investigators. Atorvastatin in patients with type 2 diabetes undergoing hemodialysis. N Engl J Med. 2005;353: 238-48.
14. Fellström BC, Jardine AG, Schmieder RE, et al; for the AURORA Study Group. Rosuvastatin and cardiovascular events in patients undergoing hemodialysis. N Engl J Med. 2009;360: 1395-407.
15. Baigent C, Landray MJ, Reith C, et al; SHARP Investigators. The effects of lowering LDL cholesterol with simvastatin plus ezetimibe in patients with chronic kidney disease (Study of Heart and Renal Protection): a randomized placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 2011;377: 2181-92.
16. McClellan WM, Chertow GM. Beyond Framingham: cardiovascular risk profiling in ESRD. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2005;16: 1539-41.
17. Langstan JB, Guytom AC, Douglas BH, Dorsett PE. Effect of changes in salt intake on arterial pressure and renal function in partially nephrectomized dogs. Circ Res. 1963;12: 508-13.
18. Koomans HA, Roos JC, Dorhout Mees EJ, Delawi IM. Sodium balance in renal failure. A comparison of patients with normal subjects under extremes of sodium intake. Hypertension. 1985;7: 714-21.
19. Guyton AC. Kidneys and fluids in pressure regulation. Small volume but large pressure changes. Hypertension. 1992;19(Suppl): 2-8.
20. Fujiwara N, Osanai T, Kamada T, et al. Study on the relationship between plasma nitrite and nitrate level and salt sensitivity in human hypertension. Modulation of nitric oxide synthesis by salt intake. Circulation. 2000;101: 856-61.
21. Lim DS, Lutucuta S, Bachireddy P, et al. Angiotensin II blockade reverses myocardial fibrosis in a transgenic mouse model of human hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Circulation. 2001;103: 789-91.
22. Lavoie P, Robitaille G, Agharazil M, et al. Neutralization of transforming growth factor-beta attenuates hypertension and prevents renal injury in uremic rats. J Hypertens. 2005;23: 1895-903.
23. Habashi JP, Judge DP, Holm TM, et al. Losartan, an AT1 antagonist, prevents aortic aneurysm in a mouse model of Marfan syndrome. Science. 2006;312: 117-21.
24. Brooke BS, Habashi JP, Judge DP, et al. Angiotensin II blockade and aortic-root dilation in Marfan's syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2008;358: 2787-95.
25. Oberleithner H. Aldosterone makes human endothelium stiff and vulnerable. Kidney Int. 2005;67: 1680-2.
26. Leopold JA. Aldosterone, mineralocorticoid receptor activation, and cardiovascular remodeling. Circulation. 2011;124:e466-8.
27. Remuzzi G, Perico N, Macia M, Ruggenenti P. The role of reninangiotensin- aldosterone system in the progression of chronic kidney disease. Kidney Int. 2005;68(Suppl 99):S57-65.
28. Effects of enalapril on mortality in severe congestive CHF. Results of the cooperative north Scandinavian enalapril survival study (CONSENSUS). N Engl J Med. 1987;316: 1429-35.
29. Effect of enalapril on survival in patients with reduced LV ejection fractions and congestive CHF. N Engl J Med. 1991;325: 293-302.
30. Effect of enalapril on mortality and the development of CHF in asymptomatic patients with reduced LV ejection fractions. N Engl J Med. 1992;327: 685-91.
31. Pfeffer MA, Braunwald E, Moye LA, et al. Effect of captopril on mortality and morbidity in patients with LV dysfunction after MI - results of the survival and ventricular enlargement trial. N Engl J Med. 1992;327: 669-77.
32. Kober L, Torp-Pedersen C, Carlsen JE, et al; for the Trandolapril Cardiac Evaluation (TRACE) Study Group. A clinical trial of the angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor trandolapril in patients with LV dysfunction after MI. N Engl J Med. 1995;333: 1670-6.
33. Effect of ramipril on mortality and morbidity of survivors of acute MI with clinical evidence of CHF. The Acute Infarction Ramipril Efficacy (AIRE) study investigators. Lancet. 1993;342: 821-8.
34. The Heart Outcomes Prevention Evaluation Study Investigators. Effects of an angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibitor, ramipril, on cardiovascular events in high-risk patients. N Engl J Med. 2000;342: 145-53.
35. Pitt B, Poole-Wilson PA, Segal R, et al. Effect of losartan compared with captopril on mortality in patients with symptomatic CHF: randomized- trial - the Losartan CHF Survival Study ELITE II. Lancet. 2000;355: 1582-7.
36. Cohn JN, Tognoni G; for the Valsartan CHF Trial Investigators. A randomized trial of the angiotensin-receptor blocker valsartan in chronic CHF. N Engl J Med. 2001;345: 1667-75.
37. Pfeffer MA, Swedberg K, Granger CB, et al; for the CHARM Investigators. Effects of candesartan on mortality and morbidity in patients with chronic CHF: the CHARM-overall programme. Lancet. 2003;362: 759-66.
38. Pfeffer MA, McMurray JJV, Velazquez EJ, et al. Valsartan, captopril, or both in MI complicated by CHF, LV dysfunction, or both. N Engl J Med. 2003;349: 1893-906.
39. KrauseMW, Fonseca VA, Shah SV. Combination inhibition of the reninangiotensin system: is more better? Kidney Int. 2011;80: 245-55.
40. Pitt B, Zannad F, Remme WJ, et al; for the Randomized Aldactone Evaluation Study Investigators. The effect of spironolactone on morbidity and mortality in patients with severe. N Engl J Med. 1999;341: 709-17.
41. Zannad F, McMurray JJV, Krum H, et al; for the EMPHASIS-HF Study Group. Eplerenone in patients with systolic CHF and mild symptoms. N Engl J Med. 2011;364: 11-21.
42. Pitt B, Remme W, Zannad F, et al; for the Eplerenone Post-Acute MI CHF Efficacy and Survival Study Investigators. Eplerenone, a selective aldosterone blocker, in patients with LV dysfunction after MI. N Engl J Med. 2003;348: 1309-21.
43. Bomback AS, Klemmer PJ. The incidence and implications of aldosterone breakthrough. Nat Clin Pract Nephrol. 2007;3: 486-92.
44. Gradman AH, Schmieder RE, Lins RL, et al. Aliskiren, a novel orally effective renin inhibitor, provides dose-dependent antihypertensive efficacy and placebo-like tolerability in hypertensive patients. Circulation. 2005;111(8): 1012-8.
45. Solomon SD, Appelbaum E, Manning WJ, et al; Aliskiren in Left Ventricular Hypertrophy (ALLAY) Trial Investigators. Effect of the direct Renin inhibitor aliskiren, the Angiotensin receptor blocker losartan, or both on left ventricular mass in patients with hypertension and left ventricular hypertrophy. Circulation. 2009;119: 530-7.
46. Parving H-H, Persson F, Lewis JB, Lewis EJ, Hollenberg NK; for the AVOID Study Investigators. Aliskiren combined with losartan in type 2 diabetes and nephropathy. N Engl J Med. 2008;358: 2433-46.
47. Parving H-H, Brenner BM, McMurray JJV, et al; for the ALTITUDE Investigators. Cardiorenal end points in a trial of aliskiren for type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2012;367: 2204-13.
48. Cheorghiade M, Böhm M, Greene SJ, et al; for the ASTRONAUT Investigators and Coordinators. Effect of aliskiren on postdischarge mortality and heart failure readmissions among patients hospitalized for heart failure. The ASTRONAUT randomized trial. JAMA 2013;309: 1125-1135.
49. Anand IS, Bishu K, Rector TS, et al. Proteinuria, chronic kidney disease, and the effect of an angiotensin receptor blocker in addition to an angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor in patients with moderate to severe CHF. Circulation. 2009;120: 1577-84.
50. Yusuf S, Pfeffer MA, Swedberg K, et al; CHARM Investigators and Committees. Effects of candesartan in patients with chronic CHF and preserved left-ventricular ejection fraction: the CHARM-Preserved Trial. Lancet. 2003;362: 777-81.
51. Cleland JGF, Tendera M, Adamus J, et al; on behalf of PEP-CHF Investigators. The perindopril in elderly people with chronic CHF (PEP-CHF) study. Eur Heart J. 2006;27: 2338-45.
52. Massie BM, Carson PE, McMurray JJ, et al; I-PRESERVE Investigators. N Engl J Med. 2008;359: 2456-67.
53. Shah RV, Desai AS, Givertz MM. The effect of renin-angiotensin system inhibitors on mortality and CHF hospitalization in patients with CHF and preserved ejection fraction: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Card Fail. 2010;18: 260-7.
54. Bertocchio J-P, Warnock DG, Jaisser F. Mineralocorticoid receptor activation and blockade: an emerging paradigm in chronic kidney disease. Kidney Int. 2011;79: 1051-60.
55. Desai AS, Lewis EF, Li R, et al. Rationale and design of the treatment of preserved cardiac function CHF with an aldosterone antagonist trial: a randomized, controlled study of spironolactone in patients with symptomatic CHF and preserved ejection fraction. Am Heart J. 2011;162: 966-72.
56. Schlaich MP, Sobotka PA, Krum H, Lambert E, Esler MD. Renal sympathetic-nerve ablation for uncontrolled hypertension. N Engl J Med. 2009;361: 932-4.
57. Symplicity HTN-2 Investigators. Renal sympathetic denervation in patients with treatment-resistant hypertension (The Symplicity HTN-2 Trial): a randomized controlled trial. Lancet. 2010;376: 1903-9.
58. Converse RL Jr, Jacobsen TN, Toto RD, et al. Sympathetic overactivity in patients with chronic renal failure. N Engl J Med. 1992;327: 1912-8.
59. Hering D, Mahfoud F, Walton AS, et al. Renal denervation in moderate to severe CKD. J Am Soc Nephrol. published online ahead of print, available at, http://jasn.asnjournals.org/content/early/2012/05/16/ASN.2011111062.abstract; 2012.
60. Tsioufis KP, Papademetriou V, Tsiachris D, et al. Renal sympathetic denervation significantly reduces mean heart rate and exerts a favorable effect on atrial and ventricular arrhythmias in resistant hypertensives. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2013;61(10-S).
61. Van der Putten K, Braam B, Jie KE, Galliard CAJM. Mechanisms of disease: erythropoietin resistance in patients with both heart and kidney failure. Nat Clin Pract Nephrol. 2008;4: 47-57.
62. Foley RN, Parfrey PS, Harnett JD, et al. The impact of anemia on cardiomyopathy, morbidity, and mortality in end-stage renal disease. Am J Kidney Dis. 1996;28: 53-61.
63. Locatelli F, Pisoni RL, Combe C, et al. Anaemia in haemodialysis patients of five European countries: association with morbidity and mortality in the Dialysis Outcomes and Practice Patterns Study (DOPPS). Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2004;19: 121-32.
64. Vlagopoulos PT, Tighiouart H, Weiner DE, et al. Anemia as a risk factor for CVD and all-cause mortality in diabetes: the impact of chronic kidney disease. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2005;16: 3403-10.
65. Besarab A, Bolton WK, Browne JK, et al. The effects of normal as compared with low hematocrit values in patients with cardiac disease who are receiving hemodialysis and epoetin. N Engl J Med. 1998;339: 584-90.
66. Singh AK, Szczech L, Tang KL, et al; CHOIR Investigators. Correction of anemia with epoetin alfa in chronic kidney disease. N Engl J Med. 2006;355: 2085-98.
67. Drüeke TB, Locatelli F, Clyne N, et al; CREATE Investigators. Normalization of hemoglobin level in patients with chronic kidney disease and anemia. N Engl J Med. 2006;355: 2071-84.
68. Pfeffer MA, Burdmann EA, Chen C-Y, et al; TREAT Investigators. A trial of darbepoetin alfa in type 2 diabetes and chronic kidney disease. N Engl J Med. 2009;361: 2019-32.
69. Obrador GT, Macdougall IC. Effect of red cell transfusions on future kidney transplantation. CJASN. 2012 Oct 18. [Epub ahead of print].
70. Donadee C, Raat NJH, Kanias T, et al. Nitric oxide scavenging by red blood cell microparticles and cell-free hemoglobin as a mechanism for the red cell storage lesion. Circulation. 2011;124: 465-76.
71. Block GA, Hulbert-Shearon TE, Levin NW, Port FK. Association of serum phosphorus and calcium x phosphate product with mortality risk in chronic hemodialysis patients: a national study. J Am Kidney Dis. 1998;31: 607-17.
72. Ganesh SK, Stack AG, Levin NW, Hulbert-Shearon T, Port FK. Association of elevated serum PO4, Ca x PO4 product, and parathyroid hormone with cardiac mortality risk in chronic hemodialysis patients. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2001;12: 2131-8.
73. Stevens LA, Djurdjev O, Cardew S, Cameron EC, Levin A. Calcium, phosphate, and parathyroid hormone levels in combination and as a function of dialysis duration predict mortality: evidence for the complexity of the association between mineral metabolism and outcomes. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2004;15: 770-9.
74. Slinin Y, Foley RN, Collins AJ. Calcium, phosphorus, parathyroid hormone, and CVD in hemodialysis patients. The USRDS waves 1, 3 and 4 study. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2005;16: 1788-93.
75. Foley RN, Collins AJ, Ishani A, Kalra PA. Calcium-phosphate levels and CVD in community-dwelling adults: the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) study. Am Heart J. 2008;156: 556-63.
76. Goodman WG, Goldin J, Kuizon BD, et al. Coronary-artery calcification in young adults with end-stage renal disease who are undergoing dialysis. N Engl J Med. 2000;342: 1478-83.
77. Civilibal M, Caliskan S, Adaletli I, et al. Coronary artery calcifications in children with end-stage renal disease. Pediatr Nephrol. 2006;21: 1426-33.
78. Oh J, Wunsch R, Turzer M, et al. Advanced coronary and carotid arteriopathy in young adults with childhood-onset chronic renal failure. Circulation. 2002;106: 100-5.
79. London GM. Cardiovascular calcifications in uremic patients: clinical impact on cardiovascular function. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2003;14(Suppl 4): S305-9.
80. Blacher J, Guerin AP, Pannier B, Marchais SJ, London GM. Arterial calcifications, arterial stiffness, and cardiovascular risk in end-stage renal disease. Hypertension. 2001;38: 938-42.
81. Tonelli M, Pannu N, Manns B. Oral phosphate binders in patients with kidney failure. N Engl J Med. 2010;362: 1312-24.
82. Drechsler C, Pilz S, Obermayer-Pietsch B, et al. Vitamin D deficiency is associated with SCA, combined cardiovascular events, and mortality in haemodialysis patients. Eur Heart J. 2010;31: 2253-61.
83. Shapses SA, Manson JE. Vitamin D and prevention of CVD and diabetes. Why the evidence falls short. JAMA. 2011;305: 2565-6.
84. Simpson RU, Hershey SH, Nibbelink KA. Characterization of heart size and blood pressure in the vitamin D receptor knockout mouse. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 2007;103: 521-4.
85. Wu J, Garami M, Cheng T, Gardner DG. 1,25(OH)2 vitamin D3, and retinoic acid antagonize endothelin-stimulated hypertrophy of neonatal rat cardiac myocytes. J Clin Invest. 1996;97: 1577-88.
86. Bodyak N, Ayus JC, Achinger S, et al. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA. 2007;104: 16810-5.
87. McGreevy C, Williams D. New insights about vitamin D and CVD. A narrative review. Annals Int Med. 2011;155: 820-6.
88. Thadhani R, Appelbaum E, Pritchett Y, et al. Vitamin D therapy and cardiac structure and function in patients with chronic kidney disease. The PRIMO randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2012;307: 674-84.
89. Einhorn LM, Zhan M, Hsu VD, et al. The frequency of hyperkalemia and its significance in chronic kidney disease. Arch Intern Med. 2009;169: 1156-62.
90. Desai AS, Swedberg K, McMurray JJV, et al. Incidence and predictors of hyperkalemia in patients with CHF. An analysis of the CHARM program. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2007;50: 1959-66.
91. Parham WA, Mehdirad AA, Biermann KM, Fredman CS. Hyperkalemia revisited. Tex Heart Inst J. 2006;33: 40-7.
92. Bowling CB, Pitt B, Ahmed MI, et al. Hypokalemia and outcomes in patients with chronic CHF and chronic kidney disease: findings from propensity-matched studies. Circ Heart Fail. 2010;3: 253-60.
93. Berger AK, Duval S, Krumholz HM. Aspirin, beta-blocker, and angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor therapy in patients with end-stage renal disease and an acute MI. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2003;42: 201-8.
94. Vanholder R, de Smet R. Pathophysiologic effects of uremic retention solutes. J Am Soc Nephrol. 1999;10: 1815-23.
95. Vanholder R, Glorieux G, Lamiere N. Uraemic toxins and CVD. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2003;18: 463-6.