Imaging of cerebral blood flow in patients with severe traumatic brain injury in the neurointensive care

Frontiers in Neurology

Volumn 5 JUL, Issue , 2014, Pages

  Rostami, Elham ^a,b   Engquist, Henrik ^a   Enblad, Per ^a  

^a UPPSALA UNIVERSITY   (Sweden)

^b KAROLINSKA INSTITUTE   (Sweden)

Author keywords

Brain injury; Cerebral blood flow; Imaging; Neurointensive care; Xenon C

Indexed keywords

BRAIN BLOOD FLOW; BRAIN ISCHEMIA; BRAIN METABOLISM; BRAIN PERFUSION; BRAIN PERFUSION IMAGING; COMPUTER ASSISTED TOMOGRAPHY; DIAGNOSTIC IMAGING; DISEASE SEVERITY; EARLY DIAGNOSIS; HUMAN; INTENSIVE CARE UNIT; NEUROIMAGING; NON INVASIVE MEASUREMENT; PERFUSION WEIGHTED IMAGING; POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY; PREDICTION; REVIEW; SINGLE PHOTON EMISSION COMPUTER TOMOGRAPHY; TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY;

EID: 84904396161     PISSN: None     EISSN: 16642295     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2014.00114     Document Type: Review

References (104)

1. Werner C, Engelhard K. Pathophysiology of traumatic brain injury. Br J Anaesth (2007) 99:4-9. doi: 10.1093/bja/aem131
2. Rose J, Valtonen S, Jennett B. Avoidable factors contributing to death after head injury. Br Med J (1977) 2:615-8. doi:10.1136/bmj.2.6087.615
3. Graham DI, Adams JH, Doyle D. Ischaemic brain damage in fatal non-missile head injuries. J Neurol Sci (1978) 39:213-34. doi:10.1016/0022-510X(78)90124-7
4. Graham DI, Ford I, Adams JH, Doyle D, Teasdale GM, Lawrence AE, et al. Ischaemic brain damage is still common in fatal non-missile head injury. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry (1989) 52:346-50. doi:10.1136/jnnp.52.3.346
5. Astrup J, Symon L, Branston NM, Lassen NA. Cortical evoked potential and extracellular K+ and H+ at critical levels of brain ischemia. Stroke (1977) 8:51-7.
6. Astrup J, Siesjo BK, Symon L. Thresholds in cerebral ischemia - the ischemic penumbra. Stroke (1981) 12:723-5.
7. Jones TH, Morawetz RB, Crowell RM, Marcoux FW, Fitzgibbon SJ, Degirolami U, et al. Thresholds of focal cerebral ischemia in awake monkeys. J Neurosurg (1981) 54:773-82. doi:10.3171/jns.1981.54.6.0773
8. Heiss WD, Rosner G. Functional recovery of cortical neurons as related to degree and duration of ischemia. Ann Neurol (1983) 14:294-301. doi:10.1002/ana.410140307
9. Graham DI, Adams JH. Ischaemic brain damage in fatal head injuries. Lancet (1971) 1:265-6. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(71)91003-8
10. Dietrich WD, Alonso O, Busto R, Prado R, Zhao W, Dewanjee MK, et al. Posttraumatic cerebral ischemia after fluid percussion brain injury: an autoradiographic and histopathological study in rats. Neurosurgery (1998) 43:585-93; discussion 593-84. doi:10.1097/00006123-199809000-00105
11. Lassen NA. The luxury-perfusion syndrome and its possible relation to acute metabolic acidosis localised within the brain. Lancet (1966) 2:1113-5. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(66)92199-4
12. Bruce DA, Langfitt TW, Miller JD, Schutz H, Vapalahti MP, Stanek A, et al. Regional cerebral blood flow, intracranial pressure, and brain metabolism in comatose patients. J Neurosurg (1973) 38:131-44. doi:10.3171/jns.1973.38.2.0131
13. Enevoldsen EM, Cold G, Jensen FT, Malmros R. Dynamic changes in regional CBF, intraventricular pressure, CSF pH and lactate levels during the acute phase of head injury. J Neurosurg (1976) 44:191-214. doi:10.3171/jns.1976.44.2.0191
14. Obrist WD, Langfitt TW, Jaggi JL, Cruz J, Gennarelli TA. Cerebral blood flow and metabolism in comatose patients with acute head injury. Relationship to intracranial hypertension. J Neurosurg (1984) 61:241-53. doi:10.3171/jns.1984.61.2.0241
15. DeWitt DS, Jenkins LW, Wei EP, Lutz H, Becker DP, Kontos HA. Effects of fluid-percussion brain injury on regional cerebral blood flow and pial arteriolar diameter. J Neurosurg (1986) 64:787-94. doi:10.3171/jns.1986.64.5.0787
16. Dietrich WD, Alonso O, Busto R, Prado R, Dewanjee S, Dewanjee MK, et al. Widespread hemodynamic depression and focal platelet accumulation after fluid percussion brain injury: a double-label autoradiographic study in rats. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab (1996) 16:481-9. doi:10.1097/00004647-199605000-00015
17. Bramlett HM, Green EJ, Dietrich WD. Exacerbation of cortical and hippocampal CA1 damage due to posttraumatic hypoxia following moderate fluid-percussion brain injury in rats. J Neurosurg (1999) 91:653-9. doi:10.3171/jns.1999.91.4.0653
18. Siesjo BK. Brain Energy Metabolism. New York, NY: John & Wiley (1978).
19. Marklund N, Salci K, Ronquist G, Hillered L. Energy metabolic changes in the early post-injury period following traumatic brain injury in rats. Neurochem Res (2006) 31:1085-93. doi:10.1007/s11064-006-9120-0
20. Reilly PL, Bullock R. Head Injury, Pathophysiology and Management. London: Hodder Education (2005).
21. Marion DW, Darby J, Yonas H. Acute regional cerebral blood flow changes caused by severe head injuries. J Neurosurg (1991) 74:407-14. doi:10.3171/jns.1991.74.3.0407
22. Bouma GJ, Muizelaar JP, Stringer WA, Choi SC, Fatouros P, Young HF. Ultra-early evaluation of regional cerebral blood flow in severely head-injured patients using xenon-enhanced computerized tomography. J Neurosurg (1992) 77:360-8. doi:10.3171/jns.1992.77.3.0360
23. Bouma GJ, Muizelaar JP, Choi SC, Newlon PG, Young HF. Cerebral circulation and metabolism after severe traumatic brain injury: the elusive role of ischemia. J Neurosurg (1991) 75:685-93. doi:10.3171/jns.1991.75.5.0685
24. Overgaard J, Mosdal C, Tweed WA. Cerebral circulation after head injury. Part 3: does reduced regional cerebral blood flow determine recovery of brain function after blunt head injury? J Neurosurg (1981) 55:63-74. doi:10.3171/jns.1981.55.1.0063
25. Jaggi JL, Obrist WD, Gennarelli TA, Langfitt TW. Relationship of early cerebral blood flow and metabolism to outcome in acute head injury. J Neurosurg (1990) 72:176-82. doi:10.3171/jns.1990.72.2.0176
26. Hovda DA, Lee SM, Smith ML, Von Stuck S, Bergsneider M, Kelly D, et al. The neurochemical and metabolic cascade following brain injury: moving from animal models to man. J Neurotrauma (1995) 12:903-6. doi:10.1089/neu.1995.12.903
27. Bergsneider M, Hovda DA, Shalmon E, Kelly DF, Vespa PM, Martin NA, et al. Cerebral hyperglycolysis following severe traumatic brain injury in humans: a positron emission tomography study. J Neurosurg (1997) 86:241-51. doi:10.3171/jns.1997.86.2.0241
28. Vespa P, Bergsneider M, Hattori N, Wu HM, Huang SC, Martin NA, et al. Metabolic crisis without brain ischemia is common after traumatic brain injury: a combined microdialysis and positron emission tomography study. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab (2005) 25:763-74. doi:10.1038/sj.jcbfm.9600073
29. Yonas H, Gur D, Wolfson SK Jr, Good WF, Good BC, Latchaw RE. Xenon-enhanced computerised tomographic cerebral blood flow mapping. Lancet (1984) 1:1357. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(84)91856-7
30. Yonas H, Snyder JV, Gur D, Good WF, Latchaw RE, Wolfson SK Jr, et al. Local cerebral blood flow alterations (Xe-CT method) in an accident victim. J Comput Assist Tomogr (1984) 8:990-1. doi:10.1097/00004728-198410000-00038
31. Langfitt TW, Obrist WD, Alavi A, Grossman RI, Zimmerman R, Jaggi J, et al. Computerized tomography, magnetic resonance imaging, and positron emission tomography in the study of brain trauma. Preliminary observations. J Neurosurg (1986) 64:760-7. doi:10.3171/jns.1986.64.5.0760
32. Latchaw RE, Yonas H, Darby JM, Gur D, Pentheny SL. Xenon/CT cerebral blood flow determination following cranial trauma. Acta Radiol Suppl (1986) 369:370-3.
33. Schalen W, Messeter K, Nordstrom CH. Cerebral vasoreactivity and the prediction of outcome in severe traumatic brain lesions. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand (1991) 35:113-22. doi:10.1111/j.1399-6576.1991.tb03258.x
34. Stringer WA, Hasso AN, Thompson JR, Hinshaw DB, Jordan KG. Hyperventilation-induced cerebral ischemia in patients with acute brain lesions: demonstration by xenon-enhanced CT. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol (1993) 14:475-84.
35. Bouma GJ, Muizelaar JP. Evaluation of regional cerebral blood flow in acute head injury by stable xenon-enhanced computerized tomography. Acta Neurochir Suppl (Wien) (1993) 59:34-40.
36. McLaughlin MR, Marion DW. Cerebral blood flow and vasoresponsivity within and around cerebral contusions. J Neurosurg (1996) 85:871-6. doi:10.3171/jns.1996.85.5.0871
37. Kelly DF, Martin NA, Kordestani R, Counelis G, Hovda DA, Bergsneider M, et al. Cerebral blood flow as a predictor of outcome following traumatic brain injury. J Neurosurg (1997) 86:633-41. doi:10.3171/jns.1997.86.4.0633
38. Schroder ML, Muizelaar JP, Fatouros P, Kuta AJ, Choi SC. Early cerebral blood volume after severe traumatic brain injury in patients with early cerebral ischemia. Acta Neurochir Suppl (1998) 71:127-30.
39. Bouma GJ, Muizelaar JP, Fatouros P. Pathogenesis of traumatic brain swelling: role of cerebral blood volume. Acta Neurochir Suppl (1998) 71:272-5.
40. Doppenberg EM, Reinert M, Zauner A, Massie TS, Bullock R. Determinants of cerebral extracellular potassium after severe human head injury. Acta Neurochir Suppl (1999) 75:31-4.
41. Kushi H, Moriya T, Saito T, Kinoshita K, Shibuya T, Hayashi N. Importance of metabolic monitoring systems as an early prognostic indicator in severe head injured patients. Acta Neurochir Suppl (1999) 75:67-8.
42. Hoelper BM, Reinert MM, Zauner A, Doppenberg E, Bullock R. rCBF in hemorrhagic, non-hemorrhagic and mixed contusions after severe head injury and its effect on perilesional cerebral blood flow. Acta Neurochir Suppl (2000) 76:21-5.
43. von Oettingen G, Bergholt B, Ostergaard L, Jensen LC, Gyldensted C, Astrup J. Xenon CT cerebral blood flow in patients with head injury: influence of pulmonary trauma on the input function. Neuroradiology (2000) 42:168-73. doi:10.1007/s002340050039
44. Schutt S, Horn P, Roth H, Quintel M, Schilling L, Schmiedek P, et al. Bedside monitoring of cerebral blood flow by transcranial thermo-dye-dilution technique in patients suffering from severe traumatic brain injury or subarachnoid hemorrhage. J Neurotrauma (2001) 18:595-605. doi:10.1089/089771501750291837
45. Valadka AB, Hlatky R, Furuya Y, Robertson CS. Brain tissue PO2: correlation with cerebral blood flow. Acta Neurochir Suppl (2002) 81:299-301.
46. Furuya Y, Hlatky R, Valadka AB, Diaz P, Robertson CS. Comparison of cerebral blood flow in computed tomographic hypodense areas of the brain in head-injured patients. Neurosurgery (2003) 52:340-5; discussion 345-6. doi:10.1227/01.NEU.0000043931.83041.AA
47. Chieregato A, Fainardi E, Tanfani A, Martino C, Pransani V, Cocciolo F, et al. Mixed dishomogeneous hemorrhagic brain contusions. Mapping of cerebral blood flow. Acta Neurochir Suppl (2003) 86:333-7.
48. Chieregato A, Fainardi E, Tanfani A, Sabia G, Martino C, Pascarella R, et al. Induced acute arterial hypertension and regional cerebral flow in intracontusional low density area. Acta Neurochir Suppl (2003) 86:361-5.
49. Chieregato A, Fainardi E, Servadei F, Tanfani A, Pugliese G, Pascarella R, et al. Centrifugal distribution of regional cerebral blood flow and its time course in traumatic intracerebral hematomas. J Neurotrauma (2004) 21:655-66. doi:10.1089/0897715041269669
50. Inoue Y, Shiozaki T, Tasaki O, Hayakata T, Ikegawa H, Yoshiya K, et al. Changes in cerebral blood flow from the acute to the chronic phase of severe head injury. J Neurotrauma (2005) 22:1411-8. doi:10.1089/neu.2005.22.1411
51. Chieregato A, Compagnone C, Tanfani A, Ravaldini M, Tagliaferri F, Pascarella R, et al. Cerebral blood flow mapping in two different subtypes of intraparenchymal hemorrhagic traumatic lesions. Acta Neurochir Suppl (2005) 95:159-64.
52. Poon WS, Ng SC, Chan MT, Lam JM, Lam WW. Cerebral blood flow (CBF)-directed management of ventilated head-injured patients. Acta Neurochir Suppl (2005) 95:9-11. doi:10.1007/3-211-32318-X_2
53. Marmarou A, Signoretti S, Aygok G, Fatouros P, Portella G. Traumatic brain edema in diffuse and focal injury: cellular or vasogenic? Acta Neurochir Suppl (2006) 96:24-9. doi:10.1007/3-211-30714-1_6
54. Chieregato A, Tanfani A, Compagnone C, Turrini C, Sarpieri F, Ravaldini M, et al. Global cerebral blood flow and CPP after severe head injury: a xenon-CT study. Intensive Care Med (2007) 33:856-62. doi:10.1007/s00134-007-0604-4
55. Masaoka H. Cerebral blood flow and metabolism during mild hypothermia in patients with severe traumatic brain injury. J Med Dent Sci (2010) 57:133-8.
56. Robertson CS, Gopinath SP, Valadka AB, Van M, Swank PR, Goodman JC. Variants of the endothelial nitric oxide gene and cerebral blood flow after severe traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma (2011) 28:727-37. doi:10.1089/neu.2010.1476
57. Kaloostian P, Robertson C, Gopinath SP, Stippler M, King CC, Qualls C, et al. Outcome prediction within twelve hours after severe traumatic brain injury by quantitative cerebral blood flow. J Neurotrauma (2012) 29:727-34. doi:10.1089/neu.2011.2147
58. Shafer R, Brown A, Taylor C. Correlation between cerebral blood flow and oxygen saturation in patients with subarachnoid hemorrhage and traumatic brain injury. J Neurointerv Surg (2011) 3:395-8. doi:10.1136/jnis.2010.004184
59. Hattori N, Huang SC, Wu HM, Yeh E, Glenn TC, Vespa PM, et al. Correlation of regional metabolic rates of glucose with glasgow coma scale after traumatic brain injury. J Nucl Med (2003) 44:1709-16.
60. Coles JP, Fryer TD, Smielewski P, Rice K, Clark JC, Pickard JD, et al. Defining ischemic burden after traumatic brain injury using 15O PET imaging of cerebral physiology. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab (2004) 24:191-201. doi:10.1097/01.WCB.0000100045.07481.DE
61. Coles JP, Fryer TD, Smielewski P, Chatfield DA, Steiner LA, Johnston AJ, et al. Incidence and mechanisms of cerebral ischemia in early clinical head injury. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab (2004) 24:202-11. doi:10.1097/01.WCB.0000103022.98348.24
62. Hattori N, Huang SC, Wu HM, Liao W, Glenn TC, Vespa PM, et al. Acute changes in regional cerebral (18)F-FDG kinetics in patients with traumatic brain injury. J Nucl Med (2004) 45:775-83.
63. Wu HM, Huang SC, Hattori N, Glenn TC, Vespa PM, Yu CL, et al. Selective metabolic reduction in gray matter acutely following human traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma (2004) 21:149-61. doi:10.1089/089771504322778613
64. Cunningham AS, Salvador R, Coles JP, Chatfield DA, Bradley PG, Johnston AJ, et al. Physiological thresholds for irreversible tissue damage in contusional regions following traumatic brain injury. Brain (2005) 128:1931-42. doi:10.1093/brain/awh536
65. Abdel-Dayem HM, Sadek SA, Kouris K, Bahar RH, Higazi I, Eriksson S, et al. Changes in cerebral perfusion after acute head injury: comparison of CT with Tc-99m HM-PAO SPECT. Radiology (1987) 165:221-6.
66. Roper SN, Mena I, King WA, Schweitzer J, Garrett K, Mehringer CM, et al. An analysis of cerebral blood flow in acute closed-head injury using technetium-99m-HMPAO SPECT and computed tomography. J Nucl Med (1991) 32:1684-7.
67. Ito H, Ishii K, Onuma T, Kawashima R, Fukuda H. Cerebral perfusion changes in traumatic diffuse brain injury; IMP SPECT studies. Ann Nucl Med (1997) 11:167-72. doi:10.1007/BF03164829
68. Wintermark M, Chiolero R, Van Melle G, Revelly JP, Porchet F, Regli L, et al. Relationship between brain perfusion computed tomography variables and cerebral perfusion pressure in severe head trauma patients. Crit Care Med (2004) 32:1579-87. doi:10.1097/01.CCM.0000130171.08842.72
69. Wintermark M, Van Melle G, Schnyder P, Revelly JP, Porchet F, Regli L, et al. Admission perfusion CT: prognostic value in patients with severe head trauma. Radiology (2004) 232:211-20. doi:10.1148/radiol.2321030824
70. Soustiel JF, Mahamid E, Goldsher D, Zaaroor M. Perfusion-CT for early assessment of traumatic cerebral contusions. Neuroradiology (2008) 50:189-96. doi:10.1007/s00234-007-0337-7
71. Huang AP, Lee CW, Hsieh HJ, Yang CC, Tsai YH, Tsuang FY, et al. Early parenchymal contrast extravasation predicts subsequent hemorrhage progression, clinical deterioration, and need for surgery in patients with traumatic cerebral contusion. J Trauma (2011) 71:1593-9. doi:10.1097/TA.0b013e31822c8865
72. Bendinelli C, Bivard A, Nebauer S, Parsons MW, Balogh ZJ. Brain CT perfusion provides additional useful information in severe traumatic brain injury. Injury (2013) 44:1208-12. doi:10.1016/j.injury.2013.03.039
73. Garnett MR, Blamire AM, Corkill RG, Rajagopalan B, Young JD, Cadoux-Hudson TA, et al. Abnormal cerebral blood volume in regions of contused and normal appearing brain following traumatic brain injury using perfusion magnetic resonance imaging. J Neurotrauma (2001) 18:585-93. doi:10.1089/089771501750291828
74. Hagen T, Bartylla K, Piepgras U. Correlation of regional cerebral blood flow measured by stable xenon CT and perfusion MRI. J Comput Assist Tomogr (1999) 23:257-64. doi:10.1097/00004728-199903000-00015
75. Rempp KA, Brix G, Wenz F, Becker CR, Guckel F, Lorenz WJ. Quantification of regional cerebral blood flow and volume with dynamic susceptibility contrast-enhanced MR imaging. Radiology (1994) 193:637-41.
76. Gillard JH, Minhas PS, Hayball MP, Bearcroft PW, Antoun NM, Freer CE, et al. Assessment of quantitative computed tomographic cerebral perfusion imaging with H2(15)O positron emission tomography. Neurol Res (2000) 22:457-64.
77. Campbell BC, Christensen S, Levi CR, Desmond PM, Donnan GA, Davis SM, et al. Comparison of computed tomography perfusion and magnetic resonance imaging perfusion-diffusion mismatch in ischemic stroke. Stroke (2012) 43:2648-53. doi:10.1161/STROKEAHA.112.660548
78. Sokoloff L, Reivich M, Kennedy C, Des Rosiers MH, Patlak CS, Pettigrew KD, et al. The [14C]deoxyglucose method for the measurement of local cerebral glucose utilization: theory, procedure, and normal values in the conscious and anesthetized albino rat. J Neurochem (1977) 28:897-916. doi:10.1111/j.1471-4159.1977.tb10649.x
79. Reivich M, Kuhl D, Wolf A, Greenberg J, Phelps M, Ido T, et al. The [18F]fluorodeoxyglucose method for the measurement of local cerebral glucose utilization in man. Circ Res (1979) 44:127-37. doi:10.1161/01.RES.44.1.127
80. Ter-Pogossian MM, Eichling JO, Davis DO, Welch MJ. The measure in vivo of regional cerebral oxygen utilization by means of oxyhemoglobin labeled with radioactive oxygen-15. J Clin Invest (1970) 49:381-91. doi:10.1172/JCI106247
81. Frackowiak RS, Lenzi GL, Jones T, Heather JD. Quantitative measurement of regional cerebral blood flow and oxygen metabolism in man using 15O and positron emission tomography: theory, procedure, and normal values. J Comput Assist Tomogr (1980) 4:727-36. doi:10.1097/00004728-198012000-00001
82. Herscovitch P, Markham J, Raichle ME. Brain blood flow measured with intravenous H2(15)O. I. Theory and error analysis. J Nucl Med (1983) 24:782-9.
83. Reivich M, Kuhl D, Wolf A, Greenberg J, Phelps M, Ido T, et al. Measurement of local cerebral glucose metabolism in man with 18F-2-fluoro-2-deoxy-d-glucose. Acta Neurol Scand Suppl (1977) 64:190-1.
84. Pickard JD, Hutchinson PJ, Coles JP, Steiner LA, Johnston AJ, Fryer TD, et al. Imaging of cerebral blood flow and metabolism in brain injury in the ICU. Acta Neurochir Suppl (2005) 95:459-64. doi:10.1007/3-211-32318-X_94
85. Menon DK. Brain ischaemia after traumatic brain injury: lessons from 15O2 positron emission tomography. Curr Opin Crit Care (2006) 12:85-9. doi:10.1097/01.ccx.0000216572.19062.8f
86. Kato T, Nakayama N, Yasokawa Y, Okumura A, Shinoda J, Iwama T. Statistical image analysis of cerebral glucose metabolism in patients with cognitive impairment following diffuse traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma (2007) 24:919-26. doi:10.1089/neu.2006.0203
87. Clausen T, Zauner A, Levasseur JE, Rice AC, Bullock R. Induced mitochondrial failure in the feline brain: implications for understanding acute post-traumatic metabolic events. Brain Res (2001) 908:35-48. doi:10.1016/S0006-8993(01)02566-5
88. Nielsen TH, Bindslev TT, Pedersen SM, Toft P, Olsen NV, Nordstrom CH. Cerebral energy metabolism during induced mitochondrial dysfunction. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand (2013) 57:229-35. doi:10.1111/j.1399-6576.2012.02783.x
89. Nortje J, Gupta AK. The role of tissue oxygen monitoring in patients with acute brain injury. Br J Anaesth (2006) 97:95-106. doi:10.1093/bja/ael137
90. Levin CS. Primer on molecular imaging technology. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging (2005) 32:S325-45. doi:10.1007/s00259-005-1973-y
91. Devous MD Sr. Single-photon emission computed tomography in neurotherapeutics. NeuroRx (2005) 2:237-49. doi:10.1602/neurorx.2.2.237
92. Raji CA, Tarzwell R, Pavel D, Schneider H, Uszler M, Thornton J, et al. Clinical utility of SPECT neuroimaging in the diagnosis and treatment of traumatic brain injury: a systematic review. PLoS One (2014) 9:e91088. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0091088
93. Hillman J, Sturnegk P, Yonas H, Heron J, Sandborg M, Gunnarsson T, et al. Bedside monitoring of CBF with xenon-CT and a mobile scanner: a novel method in neurointensive care. Br J Neurosurg (2005) 19:395-401. doi:10.1080/02688690500389898
94. Sturnegk P, Mellergard P, Yonas H, Theodorsson A, Hillman J. Potential use of quantitative bedside CBF monitoring (Xe-CT) for decision making in neurosurgical intensive care. Br J Neurosurg (2007) 21:332-9. doi:10.1080/02688690701411574
95. Carlson AP, Brown AM, Zager E, Uchino K, Marks MP, Robertson C, et al. Xenon-enhanced cerebral blood flow at 28% xenon provides uniquely safe access to quantitative, clinically useful cerebral blood flow information: a multicenter study. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol (2011) 32:1315-20. doi:10.3174/ajnr.A2522
96. Wintermark M, Sesay M, Barbier E, Borbely K, Dillon WP, Eastwood JD, et al. Comparative overview of brain perfusion imaging techniques. Stroke (2005) 36:e83-99. doi:10.1161/01.STR.0000177884.72657.8b
97. Seifert H, Blass G, Leetz HK, Voges M. The radiation exposure of the patient from stable-xenon computed tomography. Br J Radiol (1995) 68:301-5. doi:10.1259/0007-1285-68-807-301
98. Barbier EL, Lamalle L, Decorps M. Methodology of brain perfusion imaging. J Magn Reson Imaging (2001) 13:496-520. doi:10.1002/jmri.1073
99. Grandin CB. Assessment of brain perfusion with MRI: methodology and application to acute stroke. Neuroradiology (2003) 45:755-66. doi:10.1007/s00234-003-1024-y
100. Rosen BR, Belliveau JW, Vevea JM, Brady TJ. Perfusion imaging with NMR contrast agents. Magn Reson Med (1990) 14:249-65. doi:10.1002/mrm.1910140211
101. Lia TQ, Guang Chen Z, Ostergaard L, Hindmarsh T, Moseley ME. Quantification of cerebral blood flow by bolus tracking and artery spin tagging methods. Magn Reson Imaging (2000) 18:503-12. doi:10.1016/S0730-725X(00)00137-5
102. Sorensen AG, Buonanno FS, Gonzalez RG, Schwamm LH, Lev MH, Huang-Hellinger FR, et al. Hyperacute stroke: evaluation with combined multisection diffusion-weighted and hemodynamically weighted echo-planar MR imaging. Radiology (1996) 199:391-401.
103. Baird AE, Benfield A, Schlaug G, Siewert B, Lovblad KO, Edelman RR, et al. Enlargement of human cerebral ischemic lesion volumes measured by diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging. Ann Neurol (1997) 41:581-9. doi:10.1002/ana.410410506
104. Staroselskaya IA, Chaves C, Silver B, Linfante I, Edelman RR, Caplan L, et al. Relationship between magnetic resonance arterial patency and perfusion-diffusion mismatch in acute ischemic stroke and its potential clinical use. Arch Neurol (2001) 58:1069-74. doi:10.1001/archneur.58.7.1069