Chitin and chitosan from marine by-products

Maximising the Value of Marine By-Products

Volumn , Issue , 2006, Pages 340-373

  Shahidi, F ^a  

^a MEMORIAL UNIVERSITY OF NEWFOUNDLAND   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84902557233     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1533/9781845692087.2.340     Document Type: Chapter

References (146)

1. Allan C.R., Hadwiger L.A. The Fungicidal Effect of Chitosan on Fungi of Varying Cell Wall Composition. Exp. Mycol. 1979, 3:285-287.
2. Allan G.G., Peyron M. The Kinetics of the Depolymerization of Chitosan by Nitrous Acid. Chitin and Chitosan: Sources, Chemistry, Biochemistry, Physical Properties, and Applications 1989, 443-466. Elsevier Applied Science, New York. G. Skjak-Braek, T. Anthonsen, D. Sandford (Eds.).
3. Anthonsen M.W., Varum K.M., Smidsrod O. Solution Properties of Chitosans: Conformation and Chain Stiffness of Chitosans with Different Degree of N-acetylation. Carbohydr. Polym. 1993, 22:193-201.
4. Ashford N.A., Hattis D.B., Murray A.E., Seo K. Industrial Applications of Chitin and Chitin Derivatives. Inter Ocean 1976, 76:1160-1170.
5. Austin P.R. Solvents and Purification of Chitin 1975, US Patent 3,892,731.
6. Averbach B.L. Chitin-Chitosan Production for Utilization Shellfish Wastes. Seafood Waste Management in the 1980s 1981, 285-300. Marine Advisory Program, Florida Cooperative Extension Service, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, FL. W.S. Otwell (Ed.).
7. Bagnara-Tardif C., Gaudin C., Behaich A., Hoest P., Citard T., Belaich J.P. Sequence Analysis of a Gene Cluster Encoding Cellulases from Clostridium cellulolyticum. Gene 1992, 119:17-28.
8. Bai R.K., Huang M.Y., Jiang Y.Y. Selective Permeabilities of Chitosan-Acetic Acid Complex Membrane for Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide. Polymer Bull. 1988, 20:83-88.
9. Becker C. Bloodless Coup-Revolutionary Bandage That Stanches Heavy Bleeding Available at. http://www.noblood.com/forum/showthread.php?t=460.
10. Berkeley R.C.W. Chitin, Chitosan and Their Degradative Enzymes. Microbial Polysaccharides and Polysaccharases 1979, 174-189. Academic Press, London. R.C.W. Berkeley, G.W. Gooday, D.C. Ellwood (Eds.).
11. Bishop R.H., Duncan C.L., Evancho G.M., Young H. Estimation of Fungal Contamination on Tomato Products by A Chemical Assay for Chitin. J. Food Sci. 1982, 47:437-439.
12. Bosso C., Defaye J., Domard A., Gadelle A., Pederson C. The Behaviour of Chitin Toward Anhydrous Hydrogen Fluoride Preparation of β-1-4-linked 2 acetamido-2-Deoxy-D-Glucopyranosyloligosaccharides. Carbohydr. Res. 1986, 156:57.
13. Brown D. The War Against Battlefield Wounds March 24, 2003, A18. Available at. http://www.hemcon.com/WashPost.pdf.
14. Brzeski M.M. Chitin and Chitosan - Putting Waste to Good Use. Infofish Int. 1987, 5:31-33.
15. Capozza R.C. Enzymically Decomposable Biodegradable Pharmaceutical Carrier, Ger 1975, Patent 2,505,305.
16. Cardenas G., Orlando P., Edelio T. Synthesis and Applications of Chitosan Mercaptanes as Heavy Metal Retention Agent. Inter. J. Biol. Macromol. 2001, 28:167-174.
17. Chang D.S., Cho H.R., Goo H.Y., Choe W.K. A Development of Food Preservation with the Waste of Crab Processing. Bull. Korean Fish Soc. 1989, 22:70-78.
18. Cheah L.H., Page B.B.C. Chitosan Coating for Inhibition of Sclerotinia Rot of Carrots. New Zealand J. Crop Hort. Sci 1997, 25:89-92.
19. Chen C., Liau W., Tsai G. Antibacterial effects of N-sulfonated and N-sulfobenzoyl Chitosan and Application to Oyster Preservation. J. Food Protect. 1998, 61:1124-1128.
20. Cho Y.-W., Cho Y.-N., Chung S.-H., Yoo G., Ko S.-W. Water-soluble Chitin as a Wound Healing Accelerator. Biomaterials 1999, 20:2139-2145.
21. Claesson P.M., Ninham B.W. pH-Dependent Interaction Between Adsorbed Chitosan Layers. Langmuir 1992, 8:1406-1412.
22. Cuero R.G., Osuji G., Washington A. N-Carboxymethyl Chitosan Inhibition of Aflatoxin Production: Role of Zinc. Biotechnol. Lett. 1991, 13:441-444.
23. Darmadji P., Izumimoto M. Effect of Chitosan in Meat Preservation. Meat Sci. 1994, 38:243-254.
24. Deans J.R., Dixon B.G. Bioabsorbents for waste-water Treatment. Advances in Chitin and Chitosan 1992, 648-656. Elsevier Applied Science, Oxford. C.J. Brine, P.A. Sandford, J.P. Zikakis (Eds.).
25. Defaye J., Gadelle A., Pederson C. Chitin and Chitosan 1989, 415-429. Elsevier, London. G. Skjak-Braek, T. Anthonsen, P. Sandford (Eds.).
26. Defaye J., Gadelle A., Pedersen C. Synthesis of Cyclohexakis- and Cycloheptakis-(1→4)-(7-amino-6,7-dideoxy-alpha-D-glucoheptopyranosyl), homoanalogues of 6-amino-6-deoxy-cyclomaltooligosaccharides. Carbhydr. Res 1994, 261-267.
27. Desbrieres J. Viscosity of Semiflexible Chitosan Solutions: Influence of Concentration, Temperature, and Role of Intermolecular Interactions. Biomacromolecules 2002, 3:342-349.
28. Domard A. pH and CD Measurements on A fully Deacetylated Chitosan: Application to Copper (II) Polymer Interactions. Int. J. Boil. Macromol. 1987, 9:98-104.
29. Domard A., Cartier N. Glucosamine Oligomers: Preparation and Characterization. Chitin and Chitosan 1989, 287-383. Elsevier, London. G.T.A. Skjak-Braek, P. Sandford (Eds.).
30. Donald W.W., Mirocha C.J. Chitin as a Measure of Fungal Growth in Stored Corn and Soybean Seed. Cereal Chem. 1977, 54:466-474.
31. Dunn Q.L.E.T., Grandmaison E.W., Gooson M.F. Application and Properties of Chitosan 1997, Lancaster, PA, Technomic Publishing Co. M.F.A. Goosen (Ed.).
32. El-Ghaouth A., Arul J., Ponnampalam R. Use of Chitosan Coating to Reduce Water Loss and Maintain Quality of Cucumber and Bell Pepper Fruits. J. Fruit Proc. Preserv. 1991, 15:359-368.
33. El-Ghaouth A., Arul J., Ponnampalam R., Boulet M. Chitosan Coating Effect on Storing and Quality of Fresh Strawberries. J. Food Sci. 1991, 56:1618-1620.
34. El-Ghaouth A., Ponnampalam R., Castaigne F., Arul J. Chitosan Coating to Extend the Storage Life of Tomatoes. Hortscience 1992, 27:1016-1018.
35. El-Ghaouth A., Arul J., Asselin A., Benhamou N. Antifungal Activity of Chitosan on Two Post-Harvest Pathogens of Strawberry Fruits. Phytopathology 1992, 82:398-402.
36. El-Ghaouth A., Arul J., Asselin A., Benhamou N. Antifungal Activity of Chitosan on Post-harvest Pathogens: Induction of Morphological and Cytological Alterations an Rhizopus stolonifer. Mycol. Res. 1992, 96:769-779.
37. El-Katatny M.H., Gudelj M., Robra K.-H., Elnaghy M.A., Gubitz G.M. Characterization of a chitinase and an Endoβ-1,3-glucanase from Trichoderma harzianum Rifai T24 Involved in Control of the Phytopathogen Sclerotium rolfsii. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2001, 56:137-143.
38. Enomoto M., Hashimoto M., Kuramae T. Low molecular weight chitosan as anticholesterolemic. Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho 1992, 117:104-168.
39. Fang S.W., Li C.F., Shihi D.Y.C. Antifungal Activity of Chitosan and its Preservative Effect on Low- sugar Candies Kumquat. J. Food Protect. 1994, 56:136-140.
40. Hadwiger L.A., Kendra D.F., Fristensky B.W., Wagoner W. Chitosan both Activates Genes in Plants and Inhibits RNA Synthesis in Fungi. Chitin in Nature and Technology 1985, 209-222. Plenum Press, New York. R.A.A. Muzzarelli, C. Jeuniaux, G.W. Gooday (Eds.).
41. Heux L., Brugnerotto J., Desbrieres J., Versali M.-F., Rinaudo M. Solid state NMR for Determination of Degree of Acetylation of Chitin and Chitosan. Biomacromolecules 2000, 1:746-751.
42. Hirano S. Chitin biotechnological applications. Biotechnol. Ann. Rev. 1996, 2:237-258.
43. Hirano S., Nagano N. Effects of Chitosan, Pectic Acid, Lysozyme and Chitinase on The Growth of Several Phytopathogens. Agric. Biol. Chem. 1989, 53:3065-3066.
44. Hirano S., Zhang M. Cellulose-acidic Glycosaminoglycan Blend Fibers Releasing a Portion of the Glycosaminoglycans in Water. Carbohydrate Polymers 2000, 43:281-284.
45. Hirano S., Ohe Y., Ono H. Selective N-acetylation of Chitosan. Carbohydr. Res. 1976, 47:315.
46. Hirano S., Itakura C., Seino H., Akiyama Y., Nonaka I., Kanbara N., Kawakami T. Chitosan as an Ingredient for Domestic Animal Feeds. J. Agric. Food Chem. 1990, 38:1214-1217.
47. Hirano S., Zhang M., Chung B.G., Kim S.K. The N-acylation of Chitosan Fibre and The N-deacetylation of Chitin Fibre and Chitin-Cellulose Blended Fibre at a Solid State. Carbohydrate Polymers 2000, 41:175-179.
48. Holme H.K., Foros H., Pettersen H., Dornish M., Smidsrod O. Thermal Depolymerization of Chitosan Chloride. Carbohydrate Polymers 2001, 46:287-294.
49. Horowitz S.T., Roseman S., Blumenthal H.J. The Preparation of Glucosamine Oligosaccharides Separation. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1957, 79:5046-5049.
50. Howling G.I., Dettmar P.W., Goddard P.A., Hampson F.C., Dornish M., Wood E.J. The Effect of Chitin and Chitosan on the Proliferation of Human Skin Fibroplasts and Kratinocytes in vitro. Biomaterials 2001, 22:2959-2966.
51. Huang C., Chen S., Pan J.R. Optimal Condition for Modification of Chitosan: a Biopolymer for Coagulation of Colloidal particles. Wat. Res. 2000, 34:1057-1062.
52. Hughes K. Chitosan and Dietary Fibers. Prepared Foods 2002, NS11-NS14.
53. Iida J., Une T., Ishihata K.C., Nishimura, Tokura S., Mizukoshi N., Azuma I. Stimulation of Non-Specific Host Resistance Against Sendai Virus and Escherichia coli by Chitin Derivatives in Mice. Vaccine 1987, 5:270-274.
54. Ikeda I., Sugano M., Yoshida K. Effects of Chitosan Hydrolysates on Lipid Absorption and on Serum and Liver Lipid Concentration in rats. J. Agric. Food Chem. 1993, 41:431-435.
55. Inaba T., Ohguchi T., Iga T., Hasegawa E. Synthesis of 4-Methylcoumarine-7-Yloxy Tetra-N-Acetylβ-Chitotetraoside, a Novel Synthetic Substrate for the Fluoro-metric Assay of Lysozyme. Chem. Pharm. Bull. 1984, 32:1597-1603.
56. Ito M., Ban A., Ishihara M. Anti-ulcer Effects of Chitin and Chitosan, Healthy Foods, in Rats. Jpn. J. Pharmacol. 2000, 82:218-225.
57. Jaworska M.M., Konieczna E. The Influence of Supplemental Components in Nutrient Medium on Chitosan Formation by the Fungus Absidia orchidis. Appl. Microbiol Biotechnol. 2001, 56:220-224.
58. Jeon Y.-J., Shahidi F., Kim S.-K. Preparation of Chitin and Chitosan Oligomers and their Applications in Physiological Functional Foods. Food Rev. Int. 2000, 16:159-176.
59. Jeon Y.-J., Kamil J.-Y., Shahidi F. Chitosan as an Edible Invisible Film for Quality Preservation of Herring and Atlantic Cod. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2002, 50:5167-5178.
60. Jeuniaux C. Chitosan as a Tool for Purification of Waters. Chitin in Nature and Technology 1986, 551-570. New York, Plenum Press. R.A.A. Muzzarelli, C. Jeuniaux, G.W. Gooday (Eds.).
61. Kamil J.Y.V.A., Jeon Y.-J., Shahidi F. Antioxidative Activity of Chitosans of Different Viscosity in Cooked Comminuted Flesh of Herring (Clupea harengus). Food Chem. 2002, 79:69-77.
62. Kawachi I., Fujieda T., Ujita M., Ishii Y., Yamagishi K., Sato H., Funaguma T., Hara A. Purification and Properties of Extracellular Chitinases from The Parasitic Fungus Isaria Japonica. J. Biosci. Bioeng. 2001, 92:544-549.
63. Kaye R. Chitosan Markets and Quality Go Hand-in-hand. Biotechnology of Marine Polysaccharides 1985, 333-342. Hemisphere Publishing Corporation, New York. R.R. Colwell, E.R. Pariser, A.J. Sinskey (Eds.).
64. Kendra D.F., Christian D., Hadwiger L.A. Chitosan oligomers from Fusarium solani/Pea Interactions, Chitinase/(β-glucanase Digestion of Sporelings and from Fungal Wall Chitin Actively Inhibit Fungal Growth and Enhance Disease Resistance. Physiol. Mol. Plant Path. 1989, 35:215-230.
65. Kentaro K., Tetsutaro Y., Rumi I., Ichiro K. Basic Study on Metal Ion Uptake onto Chitosan Using Ion-selective Electrodes. Kyushu Kogyo Daigaku Kenkyu Hokoku, Kogaku 1986, 53:81-85.
66. Knorr D. Use of Chitinous Polymers in Food - A Challenge for Food Research and Development. Food Technol. 1984, 38:85-97.
67. Knorr D. Nutritional Quality, Food Processing and Biotechnology Aspects of Chitin and Chitosan: A Review. Process Biochem. 1986, 6:90-92.
68. Kokalis-Burelle N. Chitin Amendments for Suppression of Plant Nematodes and Fungal Pathogens. Phytopathology 2001, 91:5168-5175.
69. Koshijima T., Tanaka R., Muraki E., Yamada A., Yaku F. Chelating Polymers Derived from Cellulose and Chitin. I. Formation of Complexes from Metal Ions. Cell. Chem. Technol 1973, 7:197-205.
70. Kristbergsson K., Einarsson J.M., Hauksson S., Peter M.G., Gislason J. Recent Developments in Deacetylation of Chitin, and Possible Applications in Food Formulations 2003, 350.
71. Kurakake M., Yo-U S., Nakagawa K., Sugihara M., Komaki T. Properties of Chitosanase from Bacillus cereus S1. Current Microbiology 2000, 40:6-9.
72. Kurita K. Chemical Modification of Chitin and Chitosan. Chitin in Nature and Technology 1986, 287-293. Plenum Press, New York. R.A.A. Muzzarelli, C. Jeuniaux, G.W. Gooday (Eds.).
73. Kurita K., Ishiguro M., Kitajima T. Studies on Chitin. 17. Introduction of Long Chain Alkylidene Groups and the Influence of Properties. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 1988, 10:124-129.
74. Kurita K., Tomita K., Ishii S., Nishimura S., Shimoda K. Squid Chitin A Potential Alternative Chitin Source: Deacetylation Behaviour and Characteristics Properties. J. Poly. Sci.: Part A: Poly. Chem. 1993, 31:485-491.
75. Kurita K., Amemiya J., Mori T., Nishiyama Y. Comb-shaped Chitosan Derivatives Having Oligo (ethylene glycol) Side Chains. Polymer Bull. 1999, 42:387-393.
76. Kurita K., Kojima T., Nishiyama Y., Shimojoh M. Synthesis and Some Properties of Nonnatural Amino Polysaccharides: Branched Chitin and Chitosan. Macromolecules 2000, 33:4711-4716.
77. Kurita K., Mori S., Nishiyama Y., Harata M. N-Alkylation of Chitin and Some Characteristics of the Novel Derivatives. Polymer Bull. 2002, 48:159-166.
78. Lahiji A., Sohrabi A., Hungerford D.S., Frondoza C.G. Chitosan Supports the Expression of Extracellular Matrix Proteins in Human Osteoblasts and Chondrocytes. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. 2000, 51:586-595.
79. Lee H.-S., Han D.-S., Choi S.-J., Choi S.-W., Kim D.-S., Bai D.-H., Yu J.-H. Purification, Characterization, and Primary Structure of a Chitinase from Pseudomonas sp. YHS-A2. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2000, 54:397-405.
80. Lee J.-S., Joo D.-S., Cho Y.S.-Y., Ha J.-H., Lee E.-H. Purification and Characterization of Extracellular Chitinase Produced by Marine Bacterium, Bacillus sp. LJ-25. J. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2000, 10:307-311.
81. Lenz T.L., Hamilton W.R. Supplemental Products Used for Weight Loss. J. Am. Pharm. Assoc. 2004, 44:59-67.
82. Li Q., Dunn E.T., Grandmaison E.W., Goosen M.F.A. Applications and Properties of Chitosan. J. Bioac. Compat. Polym. 1992, 7:370-397.
83. Li K., Hwang Y., Tsai T., Chi S. Chelation of Iron Ion and Antioxidative Effect on Cooked Salted Ground Pork by N-Carboxymethylchitosan (NCMC). Food Sci. Taiwan 1996, 23:608-616.
84. Lower S.E. Polymers from The Sea Chitin and Chitosan. Manufac. Chem. 1984, 55:73-75.
85. Madhaven P., Ramachandran N.K.G. Utilization of Prawn Waste. Isolation of Chitin and its Conversation to Chitosan. Fish Technol. 1974, 11:50-56.
86. McKay G., Blair H., Findon A. Kinetics of Copper Uptake on Chitosan. Chitin in Nature and Technology 1986, 559-583. Plenum Press, New York. R. Muzzarelli, C. Jeuniaux, G.W. Gooday (Eds.).
87. Meins F., Neuhaus J.-M., Sperisen C., Ryals J. The Primary Structure of Plant-pathogenesis-related Glucanohydrolases and their Genes. Genes Involved in Plant Defense 1992, 245-282. Springer, New York, Berlin. T. Boller, F. Meins (Eds.).
88. Micera G., Deiana S., Dessi A., Decock P., Dubois B., Kozlowski H. Copper and Vanadium Complexes of Chitosan. Chitin in Nature and Technology 1986, 565-567. Plenum Press, New York. R.A.A. Muzzarelli, C. Jueuniaux, G.W. Gooday (Eds.).
89. Mientka M. New Shrimp Bandage Could Reduce Tourniquet Reliance Available at. http://www.usmedicine.com/article.cfm?articleID=642&issueID=50.
90. Mou S.S., Ma A-.D., Tu M., Li L.H., Zhou C.R. Preparation of Polylactic Acid/Chitin Composite Material and its Safety Evaluation by Animal Experiments. Di-yi-jun-yi-da-xue-xue-bao 2003, 23:245-247.
91. Muzzarelli R.A.A. Natural Chelating Polymers: Alginic acid, Chitin and Chitosan 1973, Pergamon Press, Oxford, UK.
92. Muzzarelli R.A.A. Chitin 1977, Pergamon Press, Oxford, UK.
93. Muzzarelli R.A.A. Chitin. The Polysaccharides 1985, Vol. 3:417-450. Academic Press Inc, New York. G.O. Aspinall (Ed.).
94. Muzzarelli Native, Industrial and Fossil Chitins. Chitin and Chitinases 1999, 1-6. Birhhauser Verlag, Basel, Switzerland. P. Jolles, R.A.A. Muzzarelli (Eds.).
95. Muzzarelli R.A.A., Weckx M., Fillipini O. Removal of Trace Metal Ions from Industrial Waters, Unclear Effluents and Drinking Water, with the Aid of Cross-linked N-Carboxymethyl Chitosan. Carbohydrate Polymers 1989, 11:293-296.
96. Muzzarelli R.A.A., Frega N., Miliani M., Muzzarelli C., Cartolari M. Interactions of chitin, chitosan, N-lauryl chitosan and Dimethylaminopropyl Chitosan with Olive Oil. Carbohydrate Polymers 2000, 43:263-268.
97. Nishimura K., Nishimura S., Nishi N.N., Saiki I., Tokura S., Azuma I. Immunological Activity of Chitin and its Derivatives. Vaccine 1984, 2:93-99.
98. Oh H., Kim Y.J., Chang E.J., Kim J.Y. Antimicrobial Characteristics of Chitosan Against Food Spoilage Microrganisms in Liquid Media and Mayonnaise. Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem. 2001, 65:2378-2383.
99. Ornum J.V. Shrimp Waste - Must it be Wasted?. Infofish Int. 1992, 6:48-52.
100. Papineau A.M., Hoover D.G., Knorr D., Farkas D.F. Antimicrobial Effect of Water-soluble Chitosan with High Hydrostatic Pressure. Food Biotechnol. 1991, 5:45-57.
101. Quattar B., Simard R.E., Piett G., Begin A., Holley R.A. Inhibition of Surface Spoilage Bacteria in Processed Meats by Application of Antimicrobial Films Prepared with Chitosan. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 2000, 62:139-148.
102. Rao S.B., Sharma C.P. Use of Chitosan as a Biomaterial: Studies on its Safety and Hemostatic Potential. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. 1997, 34:21-28.
103. Rha C. Chitosan as a Biomaterial. Biotechnology in the Marine Sciences 1984, 177-189. John Wiley and Sons, New York. R.A. Colwell, A.J. Sinskey, E.R. Pariser (Eds.).
104. Rupley J.A. The Hydrolysis of Chitin by Concentrated Hydrochloric Acid, and the Preparation of Low-Molecular Substrate for Lysozyme. Biochem. Biophys Acta. 1964, 83:245-255.
105. Sakai K., Nanjo F., Usui T. Production and Utilization of Oligosaccharides from Chitin and Chitosan. Denpun Kagaku 1990, 37:79-86.
106. Savage P.J., Savage G.P. The Effect of Coating Apples on the Quality of Stored Apples. Proceed. Nutr. Soc. New Zealand 1994, 19:129-133.
107. Scheruhn E., Wille P., Knorr D. Studies of Acid Binding Properties of Chitosan in Coffee Beverages. Nahrung 1999, 43:100-104.
108. Schiller R.N., Barrager E., Schauss A.G., Nichols E.J. A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Study Examining the Effects of a Rabidly Soluble Chitosan Dietary Supplement on Weight Loss and Body Composition in Overweight and Mildly Obese Individuals. Am. Nutr. Assoc. 2001, 4:34-41.
109. Shahidi F. Role of Chemistry and Biotechnology in Value-added Utilization of Shellfish Processing Discards. Can. Chem. News 1995, 47:25-29.
110. Shahidi F., Synowiecki J. Isolation and Characterization of Nutrients and Value-added Products from Snow Crab (Chinoecetes opilio) and Shrimp (Pandalus Borealis) process is discard. J. Agric. Food Chem 1991, 39:1527-1532.
111. Shahidi F., Arachchi J.K.V., Jeon Y.-J. Food Application of Chitin and Chitosan. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 1999, 10:37-51.
112. Shepherd R., Reader S., Falshow A. Chitosan Functional Properties. Glycoconjugate J. 1997, 14:535-542.
113. Simpson B.K., Gagne N., Simpson M.V. Bioprocessing of Chitin and Chitosan. Fisheries Processing: Biotechnological Applications 1994, 155-173. Chapman and Hall, London. A.M. Martin (Ed.).
114. Simpson B.K., Gagne N., Ashie I.N.A., Noroozi E. Utilization of Chitosan for Preservation of Raw Shrimp (Pandalus boreaslis). Food Biotechnol. 1997, 11:25-44.
115. Smither-Copperl M.L. Chitin as Biomass, its Origin and Role in Nutrient Cycling. Phytopathology 2001, 91:S167-S168.
116. Sorlier P., Denuziere A., Viton C., Domard A. Relation Between the Degree of Acetylation and the Electrostatic Properties of Chitin and Chitosan. Biomacromolecules 2001, 2:765-772.
117. St.Angelo A.J., Vercellotti J.R. Inhibition of Warmed-over Flavour and Preserving of Uncured Meat Containing Materials 1989, US Patent. 4,871,556.
118. Subasinghe S. Chiton for Shellfish Waste - Health Benefits Overshadowing Industrial Uses. Infofish Int. 1999, 3:58-65.
119. Sudharashan N.R., Hoover D.G., Knorr D. Antibacterial Action of Chitosan. Food Biotechnol. 1992, 6:257.
120. Sugano M., Fujikawa T., Hiratsuji Y., Hasegawa Y. Hypocholesterolemic Effects of Chitosan in Cholesterol-fed Rats. Nutr. Rep. Int. 1978, 18:531.
121. Sugano M., Fujikawa T., Hiratsuji Y., Nakashima K., Fukuda N., Hasegawa Y. A novel Use of Chitosan as a Hypocholesterolemic Agent in Rats. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1980, 33:787.
122. Sugano M., Watanabe S., Kishi A., Izume M., Ohtakara A. Hypocholesterolemic Action of Chitosans with Different Viscosity in Rats. Lipids 1988, 23:187.
123. Suzuki S. Studies on Biological Effects of Water Soluble Lower Homologous Oligosaccharides of Chitin and Chitosan. Fragrance J. 1996, 15:61-68.
124. Suzuki K., Okawa Y., Hashimoto K., Suzuki S., Suzuki M. Protecting Effect of Chitin and Chitosan on Experimental induced Murine Candidiasis. Microbiol. Immunol. 1984, 28:903-912.
125. Suzuki K., Tokoro A., Okawa Y., Suzuki S., Suzuki M. Enhancing Effects of N-acetyl Chitoligosaccharides on the Active Oxygen-Generating and Microbicidal Activities of Peritoneal Exudates Cells in Mice. Chem. Pharm. Bull. 1985, 33:886-888.
126. Suzuki K., Mikami T., Okawa Y., Tokoro A., Suzuki S., Suzuki M. Antitumor Effect of Hexa-N-acetylchitohexaose and Chitohexaose. Carbohydr. Res. 1986, 151:403-408.
127. Suzuki K., Tokoro A., Okawa Y., Suzuki S., Suzuki M. Effect of N-Acetylchito-oligosaccharides on Activation of Phagocytes. Microbiol. Immunol. 1986, 30:777-787.
128. Takahashi Y., Miki F., Nagase K. Effect of Sonolysis on Acid Degradation of Chitin to Form Oligosaccharides. Bull. Chem. Soc. Jpn. 1995, 68:1851-1858.
129. Tan S.C., Tan T.K., Wong S.M., Khor E. The Chitosan Yield of Zygomycetes at their Optimum Harvesting Time. Carbohydr. Polym. 1996, 30:239-242.
130. Thome J.P., Daele Y.V. Adsorption of Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCB) on Chitosan and Application to Decontamination of Polluted Stream Water. Chitin in Nature and Technology 1986, 551-554. Plenum Press, New York. R.A.A. Muzzarelli, C. Jeuniaux, G.W. Gooday (Eds.).
131. Tirmizi S.A., Iqbal J., Isa M. Collection Metal Ions Present in Water Samples of Different Sites of Pakistan Using Biopolymers Chitosan. J. Chem. Soc. Pakistan 1996, 18:312-315.
132. Tsai G.J., Su W.-H., Chen H.C., Pan C.-L. Antimicrobial Activity of Shrimp Chitin and Chitosan from Different Treatments and Applications of Fish Preservation. Fisheries Sciences 2002, 68:170-177.
133. Tsigos I., Martinou A., Kafetzopoulos D., Bouriotis V. Chitin Deacetylases: New, Versatile Tools in Biotechnology. Tibtech. 2000, 18:305-312.
134. Tsukada S., Inoue Y. Conformational Properties of Chitooligosaccharides-Titration, Optical Rotation and C-13 NMR-Studies of Chito-oligosaccharides. Carbohydr. Res. 1981, 88:19-38.
135. Uchida Y., Izume M., Ohtakara A. Preparation of Chitosan Oligomers with Purified Chitosanase and its Application. Chitin and Chitosan 1989, 373-382. Elsevier, London. G.T. Skjak-Braek, Anthonsen, P. Sandford (Eds.).
136. Ueno K., Yamaguchi T., Sakairi N., Nishi N., Tokura S. Advances in Chitin Science 1997, 156-161. Jacques Andre Publisher, Paris. A. Domard, G.A.F. Roberts, K.M. Varum (Eds.).
137. Volesky B. Biosorbents for Metal Recovery. Trends Biotechnol. 1987, 5:96-99.
138. Wang G. Inhibition and Inactivation of Five Species of Foodborne Pathogens by Chitosan. J. Food Protec. 1992, 55:916-919.
139. Weist J.L., Karel M. Development of a Fluorescence Sensor to Monitor Lipid Oxidation. 1. Fluorescence Spectra of Chitosan Powder and Polyamide Powder after Exposure to Volatile Lipid Oxidation Products. J. Agric. Food Chem. 1992, 40:1158-1162.
140. Win N.N., Stevens W.F. Shrimp Chitin as Substrate for Fungal Chitin Deacetylase. Appl. Microbiol. Biotecnol. 2001, 57:334-341.
141. Winterowd J.G., Sandford P.A. Chitin and Chitosan. Food Polysacchrides and their Applications 1995, 441-462. Marcel Dekker Inc, New York. M.S. Alistair (Ed.).
142. Wolform M.L., Shen-Han T.M. The Sulfonation of Chitosan. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1959, 81:1764.
143. Yalpani M., Johnson F., Robinson L.E. Robinson, Antimicrobial Activity of Some Chitosan Derivatives. Advances in Chitin and Chitosan 1992, 543-555. Elsevier Applied Science, London. C.J. Brine, P.A. Sandford, J.P. Zikakis (Eds.).
144. Ylitalo R., Lehtinen S., Wuolijoki E., Ylitalo P., Lehtimaki T. Cholesterol-lowering Properties and Safety of Chitosan. Drug Res. 2002, 1:1-7.
145. Young D.H., Kohle H., Kauss H. Effect of Chitosan on Membrane Permeability of Suspension Cultured Glycine Max and Phaseolus vulgaris cells. Plant Physiol. 1982, 70:1449-1454.
146. Zhang H., Neau S.H. In vitro Degradation of Chitosan by a Commercial Enzyme Preparation: Effect of Molecular Weight and Degree of Deacetylation. Bio-materials 2001, 22:1653-1658.