The net effect: Romanticism, capitalism, and the internet

The Net Effect: Romanticism, Capitalism, and the Internet

Volumn , Issue , 2011, Pages 1-219

  Streeter, Thomas ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF VERMONT   (United States)

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EID: 84900676827     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
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References (392)

1. John Durham Peters, Speaking into the Air: A History of the Idea of Communication (University of Chicago Press, 2001), 2.
2. See Mary Douglas, How Institutions Think (Syracuse University Press, 1986).
3. See Walter Benjamin, "Theses on the Philosophy of History," in Illuminations, ed. HannaArendt, trans. Harry Zohn (Harcourt, Brace & World, 1968), 253-64.
4. See Thomas Streeter, Selling the Air: A Critique of the Policy of Commercial Broadcasting in theUnited States (University of Chicago Press, 1996).
5. See Patrice Flichy, The Internet Imaginaire, trans. Liz Carey-Libbrecht (MIT Press, 2007).
6. See Streeter, "'That Deep Romantic Chasm': Libertarianism, Neoliberalism, and the ComputerCulture," in Communication, Citizenship, and Social Policy: Rethinking the Limits of theWelfare State, ed. Andrew Calabrese and Jean Claude Burgelman (Rowman & Littlefield, 1999), 49-64.
7. This would thus in some sense be a contribution to the type of media history that Lisa Gitelmandescribes as about "the ways that people experience meaning, how they perceive the worldand communicate with each other, and how they distinguish the past and identify culture" (Lisa Gitelman, Always Already New: Media, History, and the Data of Culture [MIT Press, 2008], 1).
8. See for example, Ted Friedman, Electric Dreams (New York University Press, 2005).
9. Throughout this book, I will occasionally use Lockean as a shorthand term to refer to a senseof legitimate property rights derived from an individual's labor as the foundation of a just society, while knowing that this refers to a popular theory of rights that ignores much of what JohnLocke's actual works were concerned with. For an example of the way his work continues to beused to stand for a particular theory of property rights, see these essays by respected legal authorities: Robert P. Merges, "Locke for the Masses: Property Rights and the Products of CollectiveCreativity," SSRN eLibrary, 5 Jan. 2009, papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1323408
10. William W. Fisher III, "Theories of Intellectual Property," in New Essays in the Legal andPolitical Theory of Property, ed. Stephen R. Munzer (Cambridge University Press, 2001), 168-99.
11. For the classic critical analysis of Locke's theory of property, see C. B. Macpherson, The PoliticalTheory of Possessive Individualism Hobbes to Locke (Oxford University Press, 1965).
12. For a discussionof the limits to this way of reading Locke, see John Dunn, "What Is Living and What IsDead in the Political Theory of John Locke?" Interpreting Political Responsibility: Essays 1981-1989 (Princeton University Press, 1990), 9-25.
13. See Erkki Kilpinen, "Memes Versus Signs: On the Use of Meaning Concepts about Natureand Culture," Semiotica 2008, 8, no. 171 (2008): 215-37.
14. The starting point for this discussion in the sociology of science is typically Robert K. Merton, "Singletons and Multiples in Scientific Discovery: A Chapter in the Sociology of Science," Proceedingsof the American Philosophical Society (1961): 470-86.
15. These are iterations of a broader question raised by political scientist Langdon Winner twodecades ago in a famous essay titled "Do Artifacts Have Politics?" The Whale and the Reactor: ASearch for Limits in an Age of High Technology (University of Chicago Press, 1988), 19-39.
16. See Fred Turner, From Counterculture to Cyberculture: Stewart Brand, the Whole Earth Network, and the Rise of Digital Utopianism (University of Chicago Press, 2008)
17. Roy Rosenzweig, "Wizards, Bureaucrats, Warriors, and Hackers: Writing the History of the Internet," AmericanHistorical Review 103, no. 5 (Dec. 1998): 1530-52.
18. Works that set the standard for the historically oriented study of technologies as socially constructedinclude Wiebe E. Bijker, Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs: Toward a Theory of SociotechnicalChange (MIT Press, 1997);
19. The Social Construction of Technological Systems: New Directions inthe Sociology and History of Technology, ed. Bijker, Thomas P. Hughes, and Trevor Pinch (MITPress, 1989);
20. Pinch and Bijker, "The Social Construction of Facts and Artefacts: Or How theSociology of Science and the Sociology of Technology Might Benefit Each Other," Social Studiesof Science 14, no. 3 (Aug. 1984): 399-441.
21. See William Glanz, "ClintonSeeks to Ease Computer-Export Rules: GOP Lawmakers Cite Security Concerns," 2 July 1999, Washington Times, A1.
22. Donna Haraway, "A Cyborg Manifesto: Science, Technology, and Socialist Feminism in the 1980s," Simians, Cyborgs, and Women: The Reinvention of Nature (Routledge, 1990), 164.
23. Richard Ohmann says something similar: "Technology...is itself a social process, saturated by the powerrelations around it, continually reshaped according to some people's intentions" (Richard Ohmann, "Literacy, Technology, and Monopoly Capital," College English 47 [Nov. 1985]: 681), though, I shouldadd that Haraway's full quotation contains a qualification: "Technologies and scientific discoursescan be partially understood as formalizations, i.e., as frozen moments of the fluid social interactionsconstituting them," but that "they should also be viewed as instruments for enforcing meanings."
24. Sherry Turkle, The Second Self: Computers and the Human Spirit (Simon and Schuster, 1984).
25. I first came up with this title in "The Net Effect: The Internet and the New White CollarStyle," a paper delivered to the Information Technology, and Society Workshop at the Schoolof Social Science of the Institute for Advanced Study, 8-10 June 2001, www.sss.ias.edu/publications/papers/paper14.pdf.
26. It should also be acknowledged that Gil Rodman also independentlycame up with the title "Net Effect" in Gil B. Rodman, "The Net Effect: The Public's Fear and thePublic Sphere," in Virtual Publics. Policy and Community in an Electronic Age, ed. Beth E. Kolko (Columbia University Press, 2003), 9-48.
27. Ian Watt, The Rise of the Novel: Studies in Dafoe, Richardson, and Fielding (University ofCalifornia Press, 1957), 60.
28. Christina Dunbar-Hester, "Geeks, Meta-Geeks, and Gender Trouble: Activism, Identity, andLow-Power FM Radio," Social Studies of Science 38, 1 Apr. 2008, 206.
29. John Frow, Time and Commodity Culture (Oxford University Press, 1997), 187.
30. See E. Gabrielle Coleman and A. Golub, "Hacker Practice: Moral Genres and the CulturalArticulation of Liberalism," Anthropological Theory 8, no. 3 (2008): 255.
31. Ellen Ullman, "Come in, CQ: The Body and the Wire," in Wired Women: Gender and NewRealities in Cyberspace, ed. Lynn Cherny and Elizabeth Reba Weise (Seal Press, 1996), 3-4.
32. See Norris Dickard and Diana Schneider, "The Digital Divide: Where We Are Today: A StatusReport on the Digital Divide," Edutopia: What Works in Public Education, 1 July 2002, www.edutopia.org/digital-divide-where-we-are-today.
33. See Jane Margolis and Allan Fisher, Unlocking the Clubhouse: Women in Computing (MITPress, 2003).
34. Also see Ellen Spertus, "Why Are There so Few Female Computer Scientists?" 1991, dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/7040;
35. Janet Cottrell, "I'm a Stranger Here Myself: A Consideration of Women in Computing," in Proceedings of the Twentieth Annual ACM SIGUCCS Conferenceon User Services (ACM, 1992), 71-76, portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?doid=143164.143214;
36. Joel Cooper and Kimberlee D. Weaver, Gender and Computers (Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2003).
37. E.P. Thompson, Making of the English Working Class (Vintage, 1966), 11.
38. See Ullman, Close to the Machine: Technophilia and Its Discontents (City Lights Publishers, 2001)
39. The Bug (Anchor, 2004).
40. J. C. R. Licklider, "Computers and Government," in The Computer Age: A Twenty-Year Review, ed. Michael L. Dertouzos and Joel Moses (MIT Press, 1979), 126.
41. Quoted in Katie Hafner and Matthew Lyon, Where Wizards Stay up Late: The Origins of the Internet (Free Press, 2003), 27.
42. See Turkle, "Video Games and Computer Holding Power," The Second Self: Computers and theHuman Spirit, 64-92.
43. Hafner and Lyon, Where Wizards Stay up Late, 33-34.
44. See, for example, Thomas K. Landauer, The Trouble with Computers: Usefulness, Usability, and Productivity (MIT Press, 1996).
45. See Carolyn Marvin, When Old Technologies Were New: Thinking about Electric Communication in the Late NineteenthCentury (Oxford University Press, 1990).
46. Similarly, Bryan Pfaffenberger has argued that "to studythe processes by which new technologies are made meaningful is to study what is arguably anindispensable component of rapid economic growth and development" (Bryan Pfaffenberger, "The Social Meaning of the Personal Computer: Or, Why the Personal Computer RevolutionWas No Revolution," Anthropological Quarterly 61 (Jan. 1988): 41.
47. See Rosenzweig, "Wizards, Bureaucrats, Warriors, and Hackers," 1530-52.
48. M. Mitchell Waldrop, The Dream Machine: J. C. R. Licklider and the Revolution That MadeComputing Personal (Penguin, 2002), 175.
49. Paul N. Edwards, The Closed World: Computers and the Politics of Discourse in Cold WarAmerica (MIT Press, 1997), 266.
50. See Merton, "Singletons and Multiples in Scientific Discovery: A Chapter in the Sociology ofScience," 470-86.
51. For the many contributors to the development of radio communication, see George Jeffrey Aitken, Syntony and Spark: Origins of Radio (John Wiley & Sons, 1976).
52. For a thorough discussionof what the Wright brothers did and did not contribute to the development of the airplane, see Tom D. Crouch, The Bishop's Boys: A Life of Wilbur and Orville Wright (W. W. Norton, 1989).
53. See "Sir Joseph Wilson Swan," Britannica Online Encyclopedia, www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9070587.
54. See Diana Crane, Invisible Colleges: Diffusion of Knowledge in Scientific Communities (Universityof Chicago Press, 1972);
55. Nicholas C. Mullins, Theories and Theory Groups in ContemporaryAmerican Sociology (Harper & Row, 1973);
56. Daryl E. Chubin, Sociology of Sciences: An AnnotatedBibliography on Invisible Colleges (Garland, 1983).
57. For an example, see Kenneth Lipartito, "Picturephone and the Information Age: The Social Meaning of Failure," Technologyand Culture 44 (Jan. 2003): 50-81.
58. See Hafner and Lyon, Where Wizards Stay up Late, 10.
59. See G. Pascal Zachary, Endless Frontier: Vannevar Bush, Engineer of the American Century (MIT Press, 1999).
60. United States Office of Scientific Research and Development and Vannevar Bush, Science, theEndless Frontier (U.S. Government Printing Office, 1945), chap. 3.2, www.nsf.gov/about/history/vbush1945.htm#ch3.2.
61. See Karl Grandin, Sven Widmalm, and Nina Wormbs, Science-Industry Nexus: History, Policy, Implications (Science History Publications, 2004).
62. For an overview, see Ellis W. Hawley, "The Discovery and Study of a 'Corporate Liberalism,'" Business History Review 52 (Autumn 1978): 309-20. The theory of corporate liberalism is generallycredited to the "revisionist" school of American history associated with William Appleman Williamsand his students, like Martin Sklar.
63. See William Appleman Williams, Contours of AmericanHistory (W. W. Norton, 1989)
64. Martin J. Sklar, The Corporate Reconstruction of AmericanCapitalism, 1890-1916: The Market, the Law, and Politics (Cambridge University Press, 1988).
65. See Streeter, "What Is an Advocacy Group, Anyway?" in Advocacy Groups and the EntertainmentIndustry, ed. Michael Suman and Gabriel Rossman (Praeger Publishers, 2000), 77-84.
66. See, for example, Bringing the State Back In, Peter B. Evans, Dietrich Rueschemeyer, andTheda Skocpol (Cambridge University Press, 1985).
67. See Hafner and Lyon, Where Wizards Stay up Late, 37-38, 89.
68. Thomas P. Hughes, Rescuing Prometheus (Pantheon, 1998), 10.
69. See Hughes, Rescuing Prometheus.
70. National Research Council, Funding a Revolution: Government Support for ComputingResearch (National Academies Press, 1999). Online at www.nap.edu/readingroom/books/far/
71. Douglas C. Engelbart, "Letter to Vannevar Bush and Program ofHuman Effectiveness," in From Memex to Hypertext: Vannevar Bush and the Mind's Machine [Academic Press Professional, 1991], 239.
72. Andries Van Dam, "Hypertext '87 Keynote Address (Transcript)," Communications of theACM, 1 July 1988, 890.
73. See Jennifer S. Light, From Warfare to Welfare: Defense Intellectuals and Urban Problems inCold War America (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2005).
74. See "The Office of the Future: An In-depth Analysis of How Word Processing Will Reshapethe Corporate Office," Business Week, 30 June 1975, 56.
75. "Good-bye to Gal Friday? Can You Conceive of a Huge Office with Only a Few Secretaries? IBM Can, and So Can Xerox and a Host of Other Companies," Forbes, 15 Dec. 1975, 47.
76. Quoted in "A Market Mostly for the Giants: IBM and Xerox Will Leave Little Room forOther Competitors to Move In," Business Week, 30 June 1975, 71.
77. See Kent C. Redmond and Thomas M. Smith, From Whirlwind to MITRE: The R and DStory of the SAGE Air Defense Computer (MIT Press, 2000)
78. Hughes, Rescuing Prometheus, 3, esp. chap. 2.
79. Also see Edwards, The Closed World, chap. 3. Work on these systems played a role ininspiring 1960s work in interactive computer graphics, particularly Ivan Sutherland's precedentsetting 1963 "Sketchpad."
80. See Ivan Edward Sutherland, "Sketchpad: A Man-Machine GraphicalCommunication System," Computer Laboratory Technical Reports: UCAM-CL-TR-574, 3 Sept. 2003, www.cl.cam.ac.uk/techreports/UCAM-CL-TR-574.html.
81. By the time the first iteration of SAGE was complete in 1963, ICBMs had superseded theairborne bombers that SAGE was designed to detect. See Edwards, The Closed World, 37-38.
82. See Waldrop, The Dream Machine, 178-79.
83. See Edwards, The Closed World, 266-67.
84. Licklider et al., "Man-Computer Symbiosis," IRE Transactions on Human Factors in Electronics (1960): 4.
85. Licklider, Libraries of the Future (MIT Press, 1965).
86. Hafner and Lyon, Where Wizards Stay up Late, 36, 34.
87. See Stanley G. Smith and Bruce Arne Sherwood, "Educational Uses of the PLATO ComputerSystem," Science 192, n.s., 23 Apr. 1976, 344-52. As one of the reviewers of this book pointedout, laptop touchpads and the iPhone and its imitators have been bringing touch screens to digitalcommunication more generally and may mark the beginning of the decline of the Engelbartinfluencedcomputer interface and a return to Plato-like systems.
88. James M. Nyce and Paul Kahn, From Memex to Hypertext (Academic Press, 1991), 237.
89. Waldrop, The Dream Machine, 27.
90. Bush, "As We May Think," in From Memex to Hypertext: Vannevar Bush and the Mind's Machine, ed. Nyce and Kahn (Academic Press, 1991), 89.
91. See Waldrop, The Dream Machine, 185.
92. See Thierry Bardini, Bootstrapping: Douglas Engelbart, Coevolution, and the Origins of Personal Computing (StanfordUniversity Press, 2000). Recent scholarship has revealed the work of Paul Otlet from the 1930s, which in retrospect is more prescient than Bush's memex proposal.
93. See W. Boyd Rayward, "Visions of Xanadu: Paul Otlet (1868-1944) and Hypertext," Journal of the American Society forInformation Science 45, no. 4 (1994): 235-50
94. Alex Wright, "The Web That Time Forgot," New York Times, 17 June 2008, www.nytimes.com/2008/06/17/health/17iht-17mund.13760031.html?pagewanted=all.
95. See Bardini, Bootstrapping, 33-57.
96. For a discussion of the differences between Whorfian relativistand Chomskyan universalist approaches to language, see George Steiner, "Whorf, Chomsky, and the Student of Literature," New Literary History 4 (Autumn 1972): 15-34.
97. Max Horkheimer and Theodor W. Adorno, "The Concept of Enlightenment," Dialectic of Enlightenment, trans. John Cumming (Herder and Herder, 1972), 3.
98. See Van Dam, "Hypertext '87 Keynote Address (Transcript)."
99. The Engelbart demo was probably first referred to as the "mother of all demos" in StevenLevy, Insanely Great: The Life and Times of Macintosh, the Computer That Changed Everything (Penguin, 2000), 42.
100. See Turner, From Counterculture to Cyberculture, 110.
101. See Rheingold, Tools for Thought, 188-89.
102. See Clifford Geertz, "Deep Play: Notes on the Balinese Cockfight," The Interpretation ofCultures (HarperCollins, 1973), 412-54.
103. Ralph Waldo Emerson, "Self-Reliance," Selected Essays, Lectures, and Poems (Bantam Classics, 1990), 160-61.
104. Stewart Brand, "Spacewar: Fanatic Life and Symbolic Death among the Computer Bums," Rolling Stone, 7 Dec. 1972, 50-58.
105. Emerson, "Self-Reliance," 160-61.
106. Richard Coyne, Technoromanticism [MIT Press, 2001], 7, 15.
107. See Gary Wolf, Wired: A Romance (Random House, 2003)
108. Georgios Panzaris, "Machines and Romances: The Technical and Narrative Constructionof Networked Computing as a General-Purpose Platform, 1960-1995" (PhD diss., StanfordUniversity, 2008).
109. See Friedrich A. Kittler, Discourse Networks, 1800/1900, trans. Michael Metteer andChris Cullens (Stanford University Press, 1992).
110. See H. C. Greisman, "'Disenchantmentof the World': Romanticism, Aesthetics, and Sociological Theory," British Journal ofSociology 27 (Dec. 1976): 495-507.
111. Colin Campbell, The Romantic Ethic and the Spirit of Modern Consumerism (Blackwell, 1987).
112. For the concept of culture as a toolkit see Ann Swidler, "Culture in Action: Symbols and Strategies," American Sociological Review 51 (Apr. 1986): 273-86.
113. See Turner, From Counterculture to Cyberculture.
114. See Edwards, The Closed World, 3-5.
115. Quoted in "Putting the Office in Place," Business Week, 30 June 1975, 56.
116. See Hughes, Rescuing Prometheus, 166-88, 189-95.
117. See Light, From Warfare to Welfare.
118. See Herbert I. Schiller, Mass Communications and American Empire (Beacon Press, 1971).
119. See James W. Carey and John J. Quirk, "The Mythos of the Electronic Revolution," American Scholar 39, nos. 1-2 (1970): 219-41, 395-424
120. Carey, "A Cultural Approach to Communication," in Communication as Culture: Essays on Media and Society (Routledge, 1988), 13-36.
121. See Michael A. Hiltzik, Dealers of Lightning: Xerox PARC and the Dawn of the Computer Age (Collins Business, 2000)
122. Erica Schoenberger, The Cultural Crisis of the Firm (Wiley, 1997), 182-202.
123. See Hafner and Lyon, Where Wizards Stay up Late, 112-13, 205.
124. See Joseph Weizenbaum, Computer Power and Human Reason: From Judgement to Calculation (Freeman, 1976).
125. For example, "Weizenbaum is perhaps the stereotypical 1960's neo-Luddite"
126. Richard S. Wallace, "From Eliza to A.L.I.C.E. (A.L.I.C.E. AI Foundation)," www.alicebot.org/articles/wallace/eliza.html.
127. Weizenbaum, Computer Power and Human Reason, 2.
128. See Levy, Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution (Penguin, 2001), 134.
129. See Edwards, The Closed World, 181.
130. See Gregory Bateson, Steps to an Ecology of Mind: Collected Essays in Anthropology, Psychiatry, Evolution, and Epistemology (Chandler Press, 1972).
131. Theodore H. Nelson, "Complex Information Processing: A File Structure for the Complex, the Changing and the Indeterminate," in Proceedings of the 1965 Twentieth National Conference ofthe ACM (ACM, 1965), 137, portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?doid=800197.806036
132. Kathleen Woodward, "Art and Technics: John Cage, Electronics, and World Improvement," The Myths of Information: Technology and Postindustrial Culture (Indiana University Press, 1983), 176.
133. See the discussion in Noah Wardrip-Fruin and Nick Montfort, The New Media Reader (MIT Press, 2003), 211.
134. Turner discusses the New York art scene and its influence on Stewart Brand; see Turner, From Counterculture to Cyberculture, 45-51.
135. Also see Turner, "Romantic Automatism: Art, Technology, and Collaborative Labor in Cold War America," Journal of Visual Culture 7, no. 1 (2008): 5-26.
136. See Wardrip-Fruin and Montfort, The New Media Reader, 245-46.
137. See Nelson, Computer Lib/Dream Machines: New Freedoms through Computer Screens-aMinority Report (Nelson [available from Hugo's Book Service], 1974).
138. Quoted in Wardrip-Fruin and Montfort, The New Media Reader, 301.
139. See Nelson, Computer Lib/Dream Machines (Microsoft Pr, 1987), 9. I have personally met atleast one computer professional who told me the same thing.
140. See Nelson, Dream Machines, p. "X" (the second page of a lettered, unnumbered "SpecialSupplement to the Third Printing, August 1975" that starts Dream Machines). The passage predictsthat Xerox PARC's innovations-those that would lead to the creation of the Macintoshless than a decade later-will lead Xerox to dominate the computer field. But he concludes withthe following prescient parenthetical statement: "The above predictions are based, of course, onthe assumption of Xerox management knowing what it's doing. Assumptions of this type in thecomputer field all too often turn out to be without basis. But we can hope"
141. Nelson, ComputerLib, X.
142. See John J. Anderson, "Dave Tells Ahl-the History of Creative Computing (David Ahl'spersonal narrative)," Creative Computing (Nov. 1984): 74.
143. Wardrip-Fruin and Montfort, The New Media Reader, 301.
144. Nelson, Computer Lib, 3.
145. Nelson, Computer Lib, X.
146. Nelson, Computer Lib, 58.
147. Nelson, "Keynote Address" presented at the Association of Internet Researchers FifthAnnual Conference, Sussex University, 21 Sept. 2004.
148. See Nelson, Computer Lib, 2.
149. William Wordsworth, The Collected Poems of William Wordsworth (Wordsworth Editions, 1998), 569;
150. Walt Whitman, The Complete Poems (Penguin, 2005), 482-83.
151. See Robert Darnton, "Readers Respond to Rousseau: The Fabrication of Romantic Sensitivity," The Great Cat Massacre and Other Episodes in French Cultural History (1984): 215-56.
152. See "HomeLib Issue: BYTE-Issue 13 (September, 1976)," www.devili.iki.fi/library/issue/158.en.html.
153. See Levy, Hackers, 154-278.
154. See also Robert X. Cringely, Accidental Empires: How the Boys ofSilicon Valley Make Their Millions, Battle Foreign Competition, and Still Can't Get a Date (CollinsBusiness, 1996);
155. Paul Sen, "The Triumph of the Nerds: The Rise of Accidental Empires" (PBS, June 1996), www.pbs.org/nerds/;
156. And Martyn Burke, Pirates of Silicon Valley, VHS Tape (TurnerHome Entertainment, 2000).
157. See Levy, Hackers, 220.
158. "IBM Enters 'the Office of the Future,'" Business Week, 14 Feb. 1977, 46.
159. With 4KB of RAM, it cost $1298 and $2638 with 48KB of RAM; see the original price listdisplayed at "Apple II computer," oldcomputers.net/appleii.html.
160. See Victor K. McElheny, "Computer Show: Preview of More Ingenious Models; ComputerShow Confirms Trend in Widening Use of Technology," New York Times, 16 June 1977, H79.
161. See Richard W. Langer, "Computers Find a Home (Yours)," New York Times, 25 Aug. 1977, C48.
162. See Levy, Hackers, 265.
163. See "TIME Magazine Cover: The Computer, Machine of the Year-Jan. 3, 1983-Personof the Year-Science and Technology-Computers-Machines," www.time.com/time/covers/0,16641,19830103,00.html.
164. See IBM Information Systems Division, Entry Systems Business, "Press Release: PersonalComputer Announced by IBM," 12 Aug. 1981), IBM online archives, www-1.ibm.com/ibm/history/documents/pdf/pcpress.pdf.
165. Sen, "The Triumph of the Nerds: The Transcripts, Part III" (PBS, June 1996), www.pbs.org/nerds/part3.html.
166. Sen, "The triumph of the nerds." "Triumph of the Nerds: The Transcripts, PartIII," http://www.pbs.org/nerds/part3.html.
167. (Jason Zasky, "Steve Wozniak Interview-AppleComputer-Business-Failure Magazine," Failure Magazine, failuremag.com/index.php/feature/article/steve_wozniak_interview/).
168. ("Armas Clifford MarkkulaProfile-Forbes.com," people.forbes.com/profile/armas-clifford-markkula/28278).
169. Quoted in Charles Brown, Jay Hamilton, and James Medoff, Employers Large and Small (HarvardUniversity Press, 1990), 1.
170. See "More Young Millionaires, Please: Europe Has Plenty of Entrepreneurs, But Too FewInnovators," The Economist, 4 Feb. 1989.
171. See Cindy Skrzycki et al., "Risk Takers," U.S. News and World Report, 26 Jan. 1987.
172. Also see "TIME Magazine Cover: Risk Takers-Feb. 15, 1982-Science and Technology-Computers-Apple-Business," www.time.com/time/covers/0,16641,19820215,00.html.
173. See Curtis Hartman, "The Spirit of Independence," Inc., 1 July 1985, 46
174. Levy, Hackers, 258.
175. John Maynard Keynes, The General Theory Of Employment, Interest,and Money (AtlanticPublishers & Distributors, 2006), 351.
176. (Thomas K. McCraw, Prophetsof Regulation [Harvard University Press, 1984], 93).
177. For example, David E. Lilienthal, TVA: Democracy on the March (Harper & Brothers, 1944).
178. See Eugene Victor Rostow, Planning for Freedom: The Public Law of American Capitalism (YaleUniversity Press, 1959).
179. Classics of this school of thought include Richard Posner, Economic Analysis of Law (LittleBrown, 1974)
180. and R. H. Coase, The Firm, the Market, and the Law (University of Chicago Press, 1988).
181. See Daniel Bell, The Coming of Postindustrial Society (Basic Books, 1976);
182. Marc Uri Porat, The Information Economy: Definition and Measurement (U.S. Department of Commerce, Officeof Telecommunications, 1977);
183. and Anthony G. Oettinger, Elements of Information ResourcesPolicy: Benefits and Burdens in the New World of Library and Other Information Services (HarvardUniversity, Program on Information Technologies and Public Policy, 1975).
184. See Jean-Francois Lyotard, The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge (University ofMinnesota Press, 1984).
185. Bell, The Coming of Postindustrial Society, 128.
186. See Frank Webster and Kevin Robbins, Information Technology: A Luddite Analysis (AblexPublishing, 1986)
187. and Nicholas Garnham, "'Information Society' as Theory or Ideology: A CriticalPerspective," Information, Communication and Society 3, no. 2 (2000): 139.
188. The exceptions are James Beniger, The Control Revolution: Technological and Economic Originsof the Information Society (Harvard University Press, 1989)
189. and, late in the game, Manuel Castells, The Information Age: Economy, Society, and Culture (Blackwell Pub, 1999).
190. See Zbigniew Brzezinski, "America in the Technetronic Age," Encounter 30 (1968): 16-26;
191. James Martin, Telematic Society: A Challenge for Tomorrow (Prentice-Hall, 1981);
192. and Stephen H. Lawrence, Centralization and Decentralization: The Compunications Connection (Harvard UniversityCenter for Information Policy Research, 1983).
193. See Tom Wolfe, "What If He Is Right?" The Pump House Gang (Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1968), 107-33.
194. See Duncan Matthews, Globalising Intellectual Property Rights (Routledge, 2002), 15.
195. See Ithiel de Sola Pool, Technologies of Freedom (Harvard University Press, 1984).
196. See David Kairys, "Freedom of Speech I," in The Politics of Law: A Progressive Critique, ed. Kairys (Pantheon, 1982), 237-72.
197. See Brand, The Media Lab: Inventing the Future at MIT (Viking Adult, 1987), 214.
198. See Marvin, When Old Technologies Were New, 71
199. and Claude S. Fischer, America Calling (University of California Press, 1994), 222-54.
200. See "1982 Brochure for the IBM Personal Computer," digitize.textfiles.com/items/1982-ibmpersonal-computer/.
201. (Michael S. Malone, Infinite Loop [Currency/Doubleday, 1999], 274).
202. Also see Sarah R. Stein, "The '1984' Macintosh Ad: Cinematic Icons and Constitutive Rhetoric in the Launch of a New Machine," Quarterly Journal of Speech 88, no. 2 (2002): 169-92.
203. See, for example, the collection of Apple's print ads at Attached, www.aresluna.org/attached/computerhistory/ads/international/apple.
204. Edwards discusses Neuromancer, War Games, and Terminator extensively and suggests theyhad a significant role in the zeitgeist of the 1980s on Edwards, The Closed World, 327-45.
205. Also see Friedman, Electric Dreams.
206. See Anne Anable, "Computers Made to Feel at Home," New York Times, 9 Mar. 1980, C10-11.
207. "A Bright New World of Home Computers; Doing the Homework: Young Experts Tips onBuying; Where to Shop; a Computer Glossary," New York Times, 4 June 1981.
208. See Marbach, "To Each His Own Computer," Newsweek, 8 Feb. 1982, 50-56.
209. See Mikhail Sergeevich Gorbachev, Memoirs, trans. George Peronansky and Tatjana Varsavsky (Doubleday, 1996), 217.
210. See Stuart Hall, "On Postmodernism and Articulation: An Interview with Stuart Hall," ed. Lawrence Grossberg, Journal of Communication Inquiry 10, no. 2 (1986): 45.
211. John Sculley, speaking in Sen, "The Triumph of the Nerds: The Transcripts, Part III."
212. Levy, Hackers, 7.
213. See Art Kleiner, "A History of Coevolution Quarterly," in News That Stayed News, 1974-1984: Ten Years of Coevolution Quarterly, ed. Brand and Kleiner (North Point Press, 1986), 371.
214. See Levy, Hackers, 197-98.
215. Steve Crocker, "Interview with Steve Crocker, CEO of Shinkuro, Inc.," IETF Journal 2 (Spring 2006), www.isoc.org/tools/blogs/ietfjournal/?p=71#more-71.
216. (Declan McCullagh, "The Laugh Is on Gore," Wired News, 23 March 1999, www.wired.com/politics/law/news/1999/03/18655/).
217. See Janet Abbate, Inventing the Internet (MIT Press, 2000);
218. Paul E. Ceruzzi, A History ofModern Computing (MIT Press, 2003);
219. and James Gillies and Robert Cailliau, How the Web WasBorn: The Story of the World Wide Web (Oxford University Press, USA, 2000).
220. Tarleton Gillespie, "Engineering a Principle: 'End-to-End' in the Design of the Internet," SocialStudies of Science 36, 1 June 2006, 427-57.
221. Abbate reports that, in the 1970s, contrary to the ARPANET plan, "email quickly became thenetwork's most popular and influential service, surpassing all expectations" (Abbate, Inventing theInternet, 107).
222. Licklider and A. Vezza, "Applications of Information Networks," Proceedings of the IEEE 66, no. 11 (1978): 1330-46.
223. See Michael Hauben, Ronda Hauben, and Thomas Truscott, Netizens: On the History andImpact of Usenet and the Internet (Wiley-IEEE Computer Society Pr, 1997), 254.
224. Lynn Conway, "The MPC Adventures: Experiences with the Generation of VLSI Design andImplementation Methodologies," Microprocessing and Microprogramming 10, no. 4 (Nov. 1982): 209-28.
225. Also available online as Conway, "Lynn Conway's VLSI MPC Adventures at XeroxPARC," 19 Jan. 1981, ai.eecs.umich.edu/people/conway/VLSI/MPCAdv/MPCAdv.html.
226. Conway, "Lynn Conway's Career Retrospective," Lynn Conway Homepage, ai.eecs.umich.edu/ people/conway/RetrospectiveT.html.
227. See especially ai.eecs.umich.edu/people/conway/Retrospective3.html.
228. Dennis Ritchie, "The Evolution of the Unix Time-Sharing System," in Language Design andProgramming Methodology, 1980, 25-35, dx.doi.org/10.1007/3-540-09745-7_2.
229. Crocker, "Interview with Steve Crocker, CEO of Shinkuro, Inc."
230. M. Doyle, "XEROX, TANG, and DARPA.," Datamation, 1 Oct. 1983, 263-64.
231. Conway, "Lynn Conway's Career Retrospective."
232. Doyle, "XEROX, TANG, and DARPA," 263.
233. See Alex Roland and Philip Shiman, Strategic Computing (MIT Press, 2002), 325.
234. (Conway, "LynnConway's Career Retrospective").
235. See Panzaris, "Machines and Romances," 155.
236. Barry Leiner's comments to a Strategic Computing Study Advisory Committee meetingin Arlington, Virginia, on 24 January 1995, are summarized by Roland and Shiman, StrategicComputing, 147.
237. See Abbate, Inventing the Internet, 184.
238. Robert E. Kahn, "Memorial Tribute to Barry Leiner," D-Lib Magazine 9, no. 4, www.dlib.org/dlib/april03/04editorial.html.
239. See William J. Broad, "Pentagon Curbing Computer Access: Global Network Split in a Bid toIncrease Its Security," New York Times, 5 Oct. 1983, A13.
240. For the rhetoric of level playing fields, see Streeter, Selling the Air, 181-83.
241. For example, see Evelyn Richards, "Semiconductor Industry Wants Nation 'TechnologyInitiative,'" Washington Post, 20 Apr. 1991, B1.
242. See Louise Kehoe, "US Computer Chiefs to Lobby Washington in Battle with Japan," FinancialTimes, 8 June 1989, 6.
243. National Research Council (U.S.). National Research Network Review Committee et al., Toward a National Research Network (National Academy Press, 1988). May 23, 1989A, pp. 4-5.
244. Milton Mueller, Ruling the Root (MIT Press, 2004), 92.
245. See Brian Kahin, "Brian Kahin Bio," BrianKahin Bio, www.si.umich.edu/~kahin/bio.html.
246. Office of Science and Technology Policy, The Federal High Performance Computing Program, 8 Sept. 1989, pp. 32, 35;
247. quoted in Kahin, "RFC 1192 (rfc1192)-Commercialization of the Internetsummary report," www.faqs.org/rfcs/rfc1192.html.
248. Mitch Kapor, "Where Is the Digital Highway Really Heading? The Case for a JeffersonianInformation Policy," Wired 1 (July-Aug.1993): 53-59, 94.
249. The earliest reference to "roadkill on the information superhighway" in Lexis/Nexis is DavidLandis, "Video Dealers Seek a Role in the High-Tech Future," USA Today, 12 July 1993, sec. Life, 4D.
250. For example, see William D. Marbach, "The Dazzle of Lasers," Newsweek, 3 Jan. 1983, 36:
251. see Ralph Lee Smith, "The Wired Nation," The Nation, 18 May 1970, 602.
252. Richard I. Kirkland, Jr., "What the Economy Needs Now," Fortune, 16 Dec. 1991, 59.
253. Alan Stewart, "NCF Flexes Its Muscles," Communications International (Nov. 1991): 12;
254. quoting Congressman Don Ritter, a member of the U.S. House Science, Space, and TechnologyCommittee.
255. See Joshua Quittner, "Senate OKs $2B for Work on National Computer Net," New YorkNewsday, 12 Sept. 1991, 35.
256. High-Performance Computing Act of 1990: Report of the Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation on S. 1067, 1990, ERIC, www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/contentdelivery/servlet/ERICServlet?accno=ED329226
257. and statement of Senator Albert Gore, Jr., CongressionalRecord (24 Oct. 1990).
258. See Grandin, Widmalm, and Wormbs, Science-Industry Nexus.
259. See en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vannevar_Bush. Also see Zachary, Endless Frontier.
260. Martin Schoffstall, email to com-priv@psi.com, 14 June 1990.
261. Uupsi!njin!cup.portal.com!thinman, email to stev@vax.ftp.com, comint@psi.com, 19 June 1990.
262. Allen Leinwand, email to schoff@uu.psi.com (cc:com-priv@psi.com), 15 June 1990.
263. Schoffstall, email to gnu@toad.com (cc:com-priv@psi.com, tcp-ip@nic.ddn.mil), 25 Sept. 1990.
264. "THE TRANSITION: Excerpts from Clinton's Conference on State of the Economy," NewYork Times, 15 Dec 1992, B10;
265. cited in Gordon Cook, "NSFNET `Privatization' and the PublicInterest: Can Misguided Policy Be Corrected?" Jan.1993, www.cookreport.com/p.index.shtml.
266. See John Schneidawind, "AT&T's Allen Feuds with Gore," USA Today, 15 Dec. 1992, 4B.
267. See Kahin, "Interview with Brian Kahin," 24 May 2001.
268. See Richard Wiggins, "Al Gore and the Creation of the Internet," First Monday 5 2 Oct. 2000, firstmonday.org/htbin/cgiwrap/bin/ojs/index.php/fm/article/viewArticle/799/708.
269. See Abbate, Inventing the Internet, 145.
270. Conway, "The MPC Adventures: Experiences with the Generation of VLSI Design andImplementation Methodologies."
271. See Dave Farber, "Remarks of John Perry Barlow to the First International Symposium onNational Security and National Competitiveness," 21 Feb. 1993, textfiles.tonytee.nl/magazines/SURFPUNK/surf0059.txt.
272. See David Toop, "MTV Gets Tangled in the Net," The Times (London), 28 May 1994, 16.
273. See Connie Koenenn, "E-Mail's Mouthpiece: In Just a Year, Wired Magazine Has Become theGuide Down the Information Superhighway," Los Angeles Times, 30 Mar. 1994, E1.
274. See Wolf, Wired-A Romance, 18-21.
275. See Paul Keegan, "Reality Distortion Field," Upside.com, 1 Feb. 1997, www.upside.com/texis/mvm/story.
276. (Jim Clark, Netscape Time: The Making of theBillion-Dollar Start-Up That Took on Microsoft [St. Martin's Griffin, 2000], 228).
277. See Ed Krol, The Whole Internet (O'Reilly & Associates, 1992), 227-33.
278. Josh Hyatt, "Hyperspace Map: Mosaic Helps Lead Users through Maze of Internet," BostonGlobe, 29 Mar. 1994, 1.
279. Campbell, The Romantic Ethic and the Spirit of Modern Consumerism, 77.
280. Jim Impoco, "Technology Titans Sound off on the Digital Future," U.S. News and WorldReport, 3 May 1993, 62.
281. See Gary Stix, "Domesticating Cyberspace," Scientific American, Aug. 1993, 100-110.
282. See Scott Bradner, "Why Now?" Network World, 27 Sept. 1993, www.sobco.com/nww/1993/bradner-1993-09-27.html.
283. See Elizabeth Corcoran, "Mosaic Gives Guided Tour of Internet," Washington Post, July 11, 1994, F19.
284. See Clark, Netscape Time, 99.
285. Quoted in Keegan, "Reality Distortion Field."
286. See Simson L. Garfinkel, "Is Stallman Stalled? One of the Greatest Programmers Alive Saw aFuture Where All Software Was Free. Then Reality Set In.," Wired 1 (Apr. 1993): 102.
287. (Bob Metcalfe, "Thanks, NCSA, for Graduating a Few of Your Mosaic Cyberstars," InfoWorld, 6 June 1994, 50).
288. See Wolf, "The (Second Phase of the) Revolution Has Begun: Don't Look Now, But Prodigy, AOL, and CompuServe Are All Suddenly Obsolete-and Mosaic Is Well on Its Way to Becomingthe World's Standard Interface," Wired (Oct. 1994).
289. John Cassidy, Dot.con: How America Lost Its Mind and Money in the Internet Era (Harper Perennial, 2003), 96.
290. Also see Cassidy, "The Woman in the Bubble," The New Yorker, 26 Apr. 1999, 48.
291. Quoted in Wendy Zellner and Stephanie Anderson Forest, "The Fall of Enron: How Ex-CEO Jeff Skilling's Strategy Grew So Complex That Even His Boss Couldn't Get a Handle onIt," Business Week, 17 Dec. 2001, 30.
292. See Erik Barnouw, A Tower of Babel, vol. 1 of A History of Broadcasting in the UnitedStates(Oxford University Press, 1966), 232.
293. See Streeter, Sellingthe Air, 84-91.
294. Virginia Postrel, "On the Frontier: From the Wild East of Russian Capitalism to the EvolvingForms of Cyberspace, Esther Dyson Likes the Promise of Unsettled Territory-and the Challengeof Civilizing It," Reason Magazine, Oct. 1996, www.reason.com/news/show/30021.html.
295. Christopher Anderson, "The Accidental Superhighway (The Internet Survey)," The Economist (US), 1 July 1995, 4.
296. see Eric Raymond, "The Cathedral and the Bazaar," Eric S. Raymond's Home Page, 21 May 1997, catb.org/~esr/writings/homesteading/cathedralbazaar/.
297. Nelson, Computer Lib, DM 45.
298. Nelson, www.hyperstand.com/Sound/Ted_Report2.html.
299. Nelson, Literary Machines: The Report on, and of, Project Xanadu Concerning Word Processing, Electronic Publishing, Hypertext, Thinkertoys, Tomorrow's Intellectual Revolution, andCertain Other Topics Including Knowledge, Education and Freedom (self published, 1983), chap. 2, 38.
300. Nelson, Ted_Report2.html.
301. (John Locke, Second Treatise of Government, ed. Crawford BroughMacpherson [Hackett Publishing, 1980], 9).
302. Ayn Rand, Atlas Shrugged (Dutton Adult, 2005), 106.
303. For an overview of some of the odd twists and turns in early property law in the United States, see Lawrence M. Friedman, A History of American Law (Touchstone, 1986), 234-44.
304. See Thomas C. Grey, "The Disintegration of Property," Property: Nomos XXII 69 (1980): 69-70.
305. Streeter, Selling the Air, 219.
306. See Carol M. Rose, "Crystals and Mud in Property Law," Stanford Law Review 40, no. 3 (1987): 577-610.
307. See Fisher, "Stories about Property," Michigan Law Review (1996): 1776-98.
308. Jeremy Bentham, The Works of Jeremy Bentham, ed. John Bowring (W. Tait, 1843), 501.
309. See Levy, Hackers, 229.
310. See Fisher, "Theories of Intellectual Property."
311. See Grey, "The Disintegration of Property."
312. See Bernard Edelman, Ownership of the Image: Elements for a Marxist Theory of Law, trans. Elizabeth Kingdom (Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979).
313. Frow, Time and Commodity Culture, 187.
314. David Saunders, Authorship and Copyright (Taylor & Francis, 1992), 7.
315. See Martha Woodmansee and Peter Jaszi, The Construction of Authorship (Duke UniversityPress, 1994).
316. See Michel Foucault, "What Is an Author?" in Language, Counter-Memory, Practice, ed. DonaldF. Bouchard, trans. Sherry Simon (Cornell University Press, 1980), 113-8.
317. See Jaszi, "Who Cares Who Wrote Shakespeare?" American University Law Review 37 (1987): 617
318. and James D. A. Boyle, "Search for an Author: Shakespeare and the Framers," AmericanUniversity Law Review 37 (1987): 625.
319. See Jane M. Gaines, Contested Culture: The Image, the Voice, and the Law (The University ofNorth Carolina Press, 1991).
320. For example, see Boyle, "Search for an Author."
321. Rosemary Coombe, The Cultural Life of Intellectual Properties: Authorship, Appropriation, andthe Law (Duke University Press, 1998).
322. See U.S. Patent and Trademark Office, Intellectual Property and the National InformationInfrastructure: The Report of the Working Group on Intellectual, Property Rights, Sept. 1995, www.uspto.gov/go/com/doc/ipnii/.
323. John Perry Barlow, "The Economy of Ideas: a Framework for Patents and Copyrights in theDigital Age (Everything you Know about Intellectual Property Is Wrong)," Wired 2 (1994): 349.
324. For example, see Streeter, Selling the Air, 276.
325. See Lawrence Lessig, "Plastics: Unger and Ackerman on Transformation," Yale Law Journal 98 (1988): 1173.
326. Lessig, "Social Meaning and Social Norms," University of Pennsylvania Law Review 144 (May 1996): 2181.
327. Lessig, "Understanding Changed Readings: Fidelity and Theory," Stanford Law Review 47 (1994): 400.
328. See Levy, "Lawrence Lessig's Supreme Showdown," Wired 10 (Oct. 2002), www.wired.com/wired/archive/10.10/lessig_pr.html.
329. Julian Dibbell, "A Rape in Cyberspace: How an Evil Clown, a Haitian Trickster Spirit, TwoWizards, and a Cast of Dozens Turned a Database into a Society," The Village Voice 23, 21 Dec. 1993, 36-42.
330. Levy, "Lawrence Lessig's Supreme Showdown."
331. See Christian Zapf and Eben Moglen, "Linguistic Indeterminacy and the Rule of Law: Onthe Perils of Misunderstanding Wittgenstein," Georgetown Law Journal 84 (1995): 485.
332. See David F. Noble, America by Design (Oxford University Press, 1979).
333. "Bill Gates once told me that the way to make money in the computer business is by settingde facto standards, by which he meant proprietary standards"
334. (Cringely, "I, Cringely. The Pulpit . Tactics Versus Strategy PBS," I, Cringely, 2 Sept. 1999, www.pbs.org/cringely/pulpit/1999/pulpit_19990902_000622.html.
335. ("I Have aDream," The Economist, 25 Nov. 1995, 65).
336. Hauben, Hauben, and Truscott, Netizens, x.
337. See "Linux," Wikipedia en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux
338. and Glyn Moody, Rebel Code: Linuxand the Open Source Revolution (Basic Books, 2002), 190-91.
339. Also see Michael Tiemann, "Historyof the OSI Open Source Initiative," www.opensource.org/history.
340. According to Tiemann, "The immediate chain of events that was to lead to the formation ofOSI began with the publication of Eric Raymond's paper The Cathedral and the Bazaar in 1997"
341. (Tiemann, "History of the OSI Open Source Initiative").
342. (Raymond, "The Cathedral and the Bazaar").
343. See William C. Taylor, "Inspired by Work," Fast Company 29 (Oct. 1999): 200.
344. [Raymond, "The Cathedral and the Bazaar"]
345. See en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usage_share_of_web_browsers.
346. Also John Borland, "BrowserWars: High Price, Huge Rewards," ZDNet News & Blogs, 15 Apr. 2003, news.zdnet.com/2100-3513_22-128738.html.
347. See Tiemann, "History of the OSI/Open Source Initiative."
348. James Gattuso, "Latest C:\spin from the Competitive Enterprise Institute," 8 Dec. 1998, www.politechbot.com/p-00120.html.
349. See Graham Lea, "MS' Ballmer: Linux Is Communism," The Register, 31 July 2000, www.theregister.co.uk/2000/07/31/ms_ballmer_linux_is_communism/
350. and Michael Kanellos, "Gates Taking a Seat in Your Den-CNET News," CNet News, 5 Jan. 2005, news.cnet.com/Gates-taking-a-seat-in-your-den/2008-1041_3-5514121.html.
351. Daniel Lyons, "Software: Linux's Hit Men," Forbes, 14 Oct. 2003, www.forbes.com/2003/10/14/cz_dl_1014linksys.html.
352. Esther Dyson, "FC: Re: Competitive Enterprise Institute Blasts Open-Source Software," 9 Dec. 1998, www.politechbot.com/p-00128.html.
353. See S. Adler, "The Slashdot Effect: An Analysis of Three Internet Publications," Linux Gazette 38 (1999).
354. See Boyle, "Is Subjectivity Possible-The Post-Modern Subject in Legal Theory," University ofColorado Law Review 62 (1991): 489.
355. See Boyle, "A Politics of Intellectual Property: Environmentalism for the Net?" Duke LawJournal 47, no. 1 (Oct. 1997): 87-116.
356. Lessig, Code and Other Laws of Cyberspace (Basic Books, 1999), 7-8.
357. Lessig, "An Information Society: Free or Feudal?" The Cook Report on the Internet (Sept. 2003): 102-4.
358. See Milton Mueller, "Info-Communisim? Ownership and Freedom in the Digital Economy," First Monday 137 Apr. 2008, firstmonday.org/htbin/cgiwrap/bin/ojs/index.php/fm/article/view-Article/2058/1956.
359. See "Copyrights: A Radical Rethink," The Economist, 23 Jan. 2003, www.economist.com/opinion/displayStory.cfm?story_id=1547223.
360. Nelson, "Welcome to Udanax.com: Enfiladic Hypertext," www.udanax.com/.
361. Kevin Werbach, Open Spectrum: The New Wireless Paradigm, working paper, Spectrum Series (New America Foundation, 2002), werbach.com/docs/new_wireless_paradigm.htm.
362. See Micah L. Sifry, "The Rise of Open-Source Politics: Thanks to Web-Savvy Agitators, Insiderism and Elitism Are under Heavy Attack," The Nation, 22 Nov. 2004.
363. See "Open Source Journalism," Wikipedia, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_source_journalism.
364. See Larry Rohter, "Gilberto Gil Hears the Future, Some Rights Reserved," The New YorkTimes, 11 Mar. 2007, www.nytimes.com/2007/03/11/arts/music/11roht.html?_r=1
365. and "BrazilianGovernment Invests in Culture of Hip-Hop," The New York Times, 14 Mar. 2007, www.nytimes.com/2007/03/14/arts/music/14gil.html.
366. See Karl Polanyi, The Great Transformation (Beacon Press, 2001).
367. See Rose, "Property as the Keystone Right," Notre Dame Law Review 71 (1995): 329-65.
368. Wolf, "The (Second Phase of the) Revolution Has Begun."
369. Alan Liu, The Laws of Cool: Knowledge Work and the Culture of Information (University ofChicago Press, 2004), 76.
370. See Carey, "The History of the Future," in Communication as Culture, 152.
371. Emerson, "Self-Reliance," 160-61.
372. See Michael Barbaro and Leslie Walker, "Dot-Coms Get Back in IPO Game," Washington Post, 18 Aug. 2004.
373. See Gitelman, Always Already New.
374. See Webster and Robbins, Information Technology.
375. Yochai Benkler, "Freedom in the Commons-The Emergence of Peer-Production as anAlternative to Markets and Hierarchies, and the Battle over the Institutional Ecosystem inWhich They Compete," paper presented at the Symposium on Cybercapitalism, School of SocialScience, Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton, N.J., 29-30 Mar. 2001).
376. For example, see "Free the iPhone: Support Wireless Freedom!" http://www.freetheiphone.org/.
377. Nelson, Computer Lib, 1.
378. See Terry Gross, "Computer Programmer Linus Torvalds: NPR," interview, Fresh Air fromWHYY, 4 June 2001, www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=1123917.
379. Paulina Borsook, "The Diaper Fallacy Strikes Again," Rewired, 3 Dec 1997, www.paulinaborsook.com/Doco/diaper_fallacy.pdf.
380. For example, see Batya Weinbaum and Amy Bridges, "The Other Side of the Paycheck: Monopoly Capital and the Structure of Consumption," Monthly Review 28, no. 3 (1976): 88-103.
381. More recently, see Nancy Folbre, Who Pays for the Kids? (Routledge, 1994).
382. See Benkler, The Wealth of Networks: How Social Production Transforms Markets and Freedom (Yale University Press, 2007).
383. See Tiziana Terranova, "Free Labor: Producing Culture for the Global Economy," Social Text 18, no. 2 (2000): 33-57
384. and Andrew Ross, Nice Work If You Can Get It (New York UniversityPress, 2009).
385. See Edward Rothstein, "Considering the Last Romantic, Ayn Rand, at 100," The New YorkTimes, 2 Feb. 2005, www.nytimes.com/2005/02/02/books/02rand.html.
386. For Rand's romantictastes in art, see Rand, The Romantic Manifesto (Signet, 1971).
387. See Hall, "On Postmodernism and Articulation."
388. See Hughes, Rescuing Prometheus, 11, 107.
389. (Lessigand Robert W. McChesney, "No Tolls on the Internet," Washington Post, 8 June 2006).
390. See Panzaris, "Machines and Romances," 1-5.
391. Attributed to John Gilmore in Philip Elmer-Dewitt, David S. Jackson, and Wendy King, "First Nation in Cyberspace," Time, 6 Dec. 1993, http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,979768,00.html.
392. See Turkle, Evocative Objects: ThingsWe Think With (MIT Press, 2007).