Discrimination by default: How racism becomes routine

Discrimination by Default: How Racism Becomes Routine

Volumn , Issue , 2006, Pages 1-186

  Wang, Lu In ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH   (United States)

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EID: 84900287162     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: None     Document Type: Book

References (170)

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55. See Doré Butler and Florence L. Geis, "Nonverbal Affect Responses to Male and Female Leaders: Implications for Leadership Evaluations," 58 J. Personality and Social Psychology 48 (1990).
56. Steven L. Neuberg, "Expectancy-Confirmation Processes in Stereotype Tinged Social Encounters: The Moderating Role of Social Goals," in 7 The Psychology of Prejudice, The Ontario Symposium 103, 104 (Mark P. Zanna and James M. Olson, eds., 1994).
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59. See Cynthia M. Frantz et al., "A Threat in the Computer: The Race Implicit Association Test as a Stereotype Threat Experience," 30 Personality and Soc. Psychol. Bulletin 1611 (2004).
60. J. Nicole Shelton, "Interpersonal Concerns in Social Encounters between Majority and Minority Group Members," 6 Group Processes and Intergroup Relations 171 (2003).
61. Edward E. Jones, "Interpreting Interpersonal Behavior: The Effects of Expectancies," 234 Science 41, 45 (1986).
62. Regina Austin, "'A Nation of Thieves': Securing Black People's Right to Shop and Sell in White America," 119 Utah L. Rev. 147, 154 (1994).
63. See generally Deseriee A. Kennedy, "Consumer Discrimination: The Limitations of Federal Civil Rights Protection," 66 Mo. L. Rev. 275, 323 (2001)
64. Jennifer Lee, "The Salience of Race in Everyday Life: Black Customers' Shopping Experiences in Black and White Neighborhoods," 27 Work and Occupations 353, 366-69 (2000).
65. Ronald Weitzer, "Racialized Policing: Residents' Perceptions in Three Neighborhoods," 34 Law and Society Rev. 129, 138 (2000).
66. See James D. Johnson et al., "Justice Is Still Not Colorblind: Differential Racial Effects of Exposure to Inadmissible Evidence," 21 Personality and Soc. Psychol. Bull. 893 (1995).
67. Michelle L. Buck and Dale T. Miller, "Reactions to Incongruous Negative Life Events," 7 Social Justice Research 29 (1994).
68. Richard Delgado, "Rodrigo's Eleventh Chronicle: Empathy and False Empathy," 84 Cal. L. Rev. 61, 76 (1996).
69. Daniel Kahneman and Dale T. Miller, "Norm Theory: Comparing Reality to Its Alternatives," 93 Psychol. Rev. 136 (1986).
70. Robert A. Prentice and Jonathan J. Koehler, "A Normality Bias in Legal Decision Making," 88 Cornell L. Rev. 583, 639 (2003).
71. Neal J. Roese, "Counterfactual Thinking," 121 Psychol. Bull. 133 (1997).
72. See Joel T. Johnson, "The Knowledge of What Might Have Been: Affective and Attributional Consequences of Near Outcomes," 12 Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 51 (1986).
73. M. H. Medvec, S. F. Madey, and T. Glovich, "When Less Is More:Counterfactual Thinking and Satisfaction among Olympic Athletes," 69 J. Personality and Soc. Psychol. 603-10 (1995).
74. Neal Feigenson, Legal Blame: How Jurors Think and Talk about Accidents 54 (2000).
75. See, e.g., C. Neil Macrae, "A Tale of Two Curries: Counterfactual Thinking and Accident-Related Judgments," 18 Personality and Soc. Psychol. Bull. 84 (1992)
76. C. Neil Macrae and Alan B. Milne, "A Curry for Your Thoughts: Empathic Effects on Counterfactual Thinking," 18 Personality and Soc. Psychol. Bull. 625 (1992).
77. See generally Dale T. Miller and William Turnbull, "The Counterfactual Fallacy: Confusing What Might Have Been with What Ought to Have Been," 4 Social Justice Research 1 (1990).
78. C. Neil Macrae et al., "Counterfactual Thinking and the Perception of Criminal Behaviour," 84 Brit. J. Psychol. 221 (1993).
79. See generally Lu-in Wang, "The Complexities of 'Hate,'" 60 Ohio State L.J. 799, 821-24 (1999).
80. See Matthew T. Crawford and Dean M. McCrea, "When Mutations Meet Motivations: Attitude Biases in Counterfactual Thought," 40 J. Experimental Social Psychology 65 (2004).
81. Christopher T. Burris and Nyla R. Branscombe, "Racism, Counterfactual Thinking, and Judgment Severity," 23 J. Applied Soc. Psychol. 980 (1993).
82. Linda Hamilton Krieger, "Civil Rights Perestroika: Intergroup Relations after Affirmative Action," 86 Cal. L. Rev. 1253, 1327 (1998).
83. Dale T. Miller and Cathy McFarland, "Counterfactual Thinking and Victim Compensation: A Test of Norm Theory," 12 Personality and Soc. Psychol. Bull. 513 (1987).
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86. Charlie McCollum, "Discrepancy in Coverage for Two Missing Girls: One White, One Black," San Jose Mercury News, July 2, 2002.
87. See Mark Johnson and Annysa Johnson, "2 Missing Girls' Cases Show Media Disparity: Alexis Gets Little Notice, Utah Girl Widely Covered," Milwaukee Journal Sentinel, June 14, 2002.
88. Iris Marion Young, Justice and the Politics of Difference 61 (1990).
89. See also Thomas Ashby Wills, "Downward Comparison Principles in Social Psychology," 90 Psychological Bulletin 245, 246, 257 (1981).
90. Dorothy E. Roberts, "Foreword: Race, Vagueness, and the Social Meaning of Order-Maintenance Policing," 89 J. Crim. L. and Criminology 775, 811-13 (1999).
91. Deseriee A. Kennedy, "Consumer Discrimination: The Limitations of Federal Civil Rights Protection," 66 Mo. L. Rev. 275, 303 (2001), quoting Philomena Essed, Understanding Everyday Racism 50 (1991).
92. See René Bowser, "Racial Profiling in Health Care: An Institutional Analysis of Medical Treatment Disparities," 7 Mich. J. Race and L. 79 (2001).
93. See Nyla R. Branscombe and Julie A. Weir, "Resistance as Stereotype-Inconsistency: Consequences for Judgments of Rape Victims," 11 J. Soc. and Clinical Psychol. 80 (1992), quoting Lawrence S. Wrightsman, Psychology and the Legal System (1987).
94. See generally, e.g., Linda S. Perloff, "Social Comparison and Illusions of Invulnerability to Negative Life Events," in Coping with Negative Life Events: Clinical and Social Psychological Perspectives 218 (C. R. Snyder and Carol E. Ford, eds., 1987)
95. Thomas Ashby Wills, "Downward Comparison as a Coping Mechanism," in Coping with Negative Life Events, at 243-46.
96. See generally Lu-in Wang, "The Transforming Power of 'Hate': Social Cognition Theory and the Harms of Bias-Related Crime," 71 S. Cal. L. Rev. 47, 94-97, 126-27 (1997).
97. Gary L. Wells and Igor Gavanski, "Mental Simulation of Causality," 56 J. Personality and Soc. Psychol. 161 (1989).
98. See, for example, Rachel McCloy and Ruth M. J. Byrne, "Counterfactual Thinking about Controllable Events," 28 Memory and Cognition 1071 (2000).
99. See, e.g., James B. Jacobs and Kimberly Potter, Hate Crimes: Criminal Law and Identity Politics 81 (1998).
100. See Anthony C. Thompson, "Stopping the Usual Suspects: Race and the Fourth Amendment," 74 N.Y.U. L. Rev. 956, 972 (1999).
101. David A. Harris, Profiles in Injustice: Why Racial Profiling Cannot Work 15 (2003).
102. See, e.g., Ushma Patel, "Thumbs Up, Down in Area; Residents Divided over Ashcroft Plan," Atlanta Journal-Constitution, June 6, 2002
103. Priya Rai, "I Once Believed in Diversity; but Then Came September 11," Hartford Courant, June 9, 2002.
104. Lu-in Wang, "'Suitable Targets'? Parallels and Connections between 'Hate' Crimes and 'Driving while Black,'" 6 Mich. J. Race and L. 209, 232 (2001) (citations omitted).
105. David A. Harris, "The Stories, the Statistics, and the Law: Why 'Driving while Black' Matters," 84 Minn. L. Rev. 265, 298-99 (1999).
106. See Darren K. Carlson, "Racial Profiling Seen as Pervasive, Unjust," Gallup Poll, July 20, 2004
107. Jack Ludwig, "Americans See Racial Profiling as Widespread," Gallup Poll, May 13, 2003.
108. See, e.g., Cynthia Grant Bowman, "Street Harassment and the Informal Ghettoization of Women," 106 Harv. L. Rev. 517, 541-43 (1993).
109. Nyla R. Branscombe et al., "Rape and Accident Counterfactuals:Who Might Have Done Otherwise and Would It Have Changed the Outcome?" 26 J. Applied Social Psychology 1042, 1063 (1996).
110. See Stephen D. Goldinger et al., "'Blaming the Victim' under Memory Load," 14 Psychol. Sci. 81 (2003).
111. Ronnie Janoff-Bulman, "The Aftermath of Victimization: Rebuilding Shattered Assumptions," in Trauma and Its Wake: The Study and Treatment of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder 15, 20 (Charles R. Figley, ed., 1985).
112. Shelley E. Taylor, Joanne V. Wood, and Rosemary Lichtman, "It Could Be Worse: Selective Evaluation as a Response to Victimization," 39 J. Social Issues 19, 23 (1983).
113. See Linda Garnets, Gregory M. Herek, and Barrie Levy, "Violence and Victimization of Lesbians and Gay Men: Mental Health Consequences," 5 J. Interpersonal Violence 366, 374 (1990)
114. Gregory M. Herek, "Hate Crimes against Lesbians and Gay Men: Issues for Research and Policy," 44 Am. Psychologist 948 (1989).
115. Patricia Williams, "Spirit-Murdering the Messenger: The Discourse of Fingerpointing as the Law's Response to Racism," 42 U. Miami L. Rev. 127, 136 (1987).
116. Doré Butler and Florence L. Geis, "Nonverbal Affect Responses to Male and Female Leaders: Implications for Leadership Evaluations," 58 J. Personality and Social Psychology 48 (1990).
117. See, e.g., john a. powell, "Rights Talk/Free Speech and Equality," 1992/1993 Ann. Surv. Am. L. 587, 589-90
118. Lena Williams, It's the Little Things: The Everyday Interactions That Get under the Skin of Blacks and Whites 41-43 (2000).
119. Pat K. Chew, "Asian Americans: The 'Reticent' Minority and Their Paradoxes," 36 Wm. and Mary L. Rev. 1, 69-70 (1994).
120. See, e.g., W. Michael Byrd and Lynda A. Clayton, An American Health Dilemma: A Medical History of African Americans and the Problem of Race 29-33 (2000).
121. See, e.g., Roberto Bernabei et al., "Management of Pain in Elderly Patients with Cancer," 279 JAMA 1877 (1998)
122. Edward Guadagnoli et al., "The Influence of Race on the Use of Surgical Procedures for Treatment of Peripheral Vascular Disease of the Lower Extremities," 130 Arch. Surgery 381 (1995)
123. Kevin A. Schulman et al., "The Effect of Race and Sex on Physicians' Recommendations for Cardiac Catheterization," 340 New Eng. J. Med. 618 (1999)
124. Knox H. Todd et al., "Ethnicity and Analgesic Practice," 35 Annals Emergency Med. 11 (2000).
125. See also Knox H. Todd et al., "Ethnicity as a Risk Factor for Inadequate Emergency Department Analgesia," 269 JAMA 1537 (1993).
126. See generally, e.g., Erica Goode, "Minorities' Care for Mental Ills Is Called Inferior," N.Y. Times, Aug. 27, 2001
127. William B. Lawson et al., "Race as a Factor in Inpatient and Outpatient Admissions and Diagnoses," 45 Hosp. and Community Psychiatry 72 (1994)
128. Thomas W. Pavkov et al., "Psychiatric Diagnoses and Racial Bias: An Empirical Investigation," 20 Prof. Psychol.: Research and Practice 364 (1989)
129. Steven P. Segal et al., "Race, Quality of Care, and Antipsychotic Prescribing Practices in Psychi-atric Emergency Services," 47 Psychiatric Services 282 (1996)
130. Jay C. Wade, "Institutional Racism: An Analysis of the Mental Health System," 63 Am. J. Orthopsychiatry 536 (1993)
131. Arthur L. Whaley, "Racism in the Provision of Mental Health Services: A Social Cognitive Analysis," 68 Am. J. Orthopsychiatry 47, 52 (1998).
132. See, e.g., Council on Ethical and Judicial Affairs of the American Medical Association, "Black-White Disparities in Health Care," 263 JAMA 2344, 2346 (1990)
133. Editorial, "Racial Disparities in Medical Care," 344 New Eng. J. Med. 1471 (2001).
134. Sally Satel, PC M.D.: How Political Correctness Is Corrupting Medicine 4-5 (2000).
135. See, e.g., M. Gregg Bloche, "Race and Discretion in American Medicine," I Yale J. Health Pol'y, L., and Ethics 95, 97-99 (2001).
136. See generally Vernellia R. Randall, "Slavery, Segregation and Racism:Trusting the Health Care System Ain't Always Easy! An African American Perspective on Bioethics," 15 St. Louis U. Pub. L. Rev. 191 (1996).
137. See, e.g., Jeff Whittle et al., "Do Patient Preferences Contribute to Racial Differences in Cardiovascular Use?" 12 J. Gen. Internal Med. 267, 271 (1997).
138. Jeffrey N. Katz, Commentary, "Patient Preferences and Health Disparities," 286 JAMA 1506 (2001).
139. See generally Vicki S. Freimuth et al., "African Americans' Views on Research and the Tuskegee Syphilis Study," 52 Soc. Sci. Med. 797 (2001).
140. Laura M. Bogart and Sheryl Thorburn, "Are HIV/AIDS Conspiracy Beliefs a Barrier to HIV Prevention among African Americans?" 38 J. Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 213 (2005).
141. See Michelle van Ryn and Jane Burke, "The Effect of Patient Race and Socioeconomic Status on Physicians' Perceptions of Patients," 50 Soc. Sci. Med. 813, 814 (2000).
142. See Judith A. Hall et al., "Physicians' Liking for Their Patients: More Evidence for the Role of Affect in Medical Care," 12 Health Psychology 140, 143 (1993).
143. Ana I. Balsa et al., "Clinical Uncertainty and Healthcare Disparities," 29 Am. J. L. and Med. 203, 207 (2003).
144. See Daniel T. Gilbert and J. Gregory Hixon, "The Trouble of Thinking:Activation and Application of Stereotypic Beliefs," 60 J. Personality and Soc. Psychol. 509 (1991).
145. See generally, e.g., Association of American Medical Colleges, Mi-nority Students in Medical Education: Facts and Figures XII (2002)
146. Stanley S. Bergen Jr., "Underrepresented Minorities in Medicine," 284 JAMA 1138 (2000)
147. David M. Carlisle and Jill E. Gardner, "The Entry of African American Students into U.S. Medical Schools: An Evaluation of Recent Trends," 90 J. Nat'l Med. Ass'n 466 (1998)
148. The Sullivan Commission on Diversity in the Healthcare Workforce, Missing Persons: Minorities in the Health Professions (2004).
149. Neil S. Calman, "Out of the Shadow: A White Inner-City Doctor Wrestles with Racial Prejudice," 9 Health Affairs 170 (2000).
150. Theodore R. Brooks, "Pitfalls in Communication with Hispanic and African-American Patients: Do Translators Help or Harm?" 84 J. Nat'l Med. Ass'n 941 (1992)
151. Jeffrey A. Ferguson et al., "Racial Disparity in Cardiac Decisionmaking: Results from Patient Focus Groups," 158 Arch. Intern. Med. 1450 (1998).
152. Cathy J. Jones, "Autonomy and Informed Consent in Medical Decisionmaking:Toward a New Self-Fulfilling Prophecy," 47 Wash. and Lee L. Rev. 379, 407 (1990).
153. Cf. Erving Goffman, Stigma: Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity 7-9 (1963).
154. Arthur L. Whaley, "The Culturally-Sensitive Diagnostic Interview Research Project: A Study on the Psychiatric Misdiagnosis of African American Patients," 8 African American Research Perspectives 57 (2002).
155. David Sue and Stanley Sue, "Cultural Factors in the Clinical Assessment of Asian Americans," 55 J. Consulting and Clinical Psychol. 479 (1987).
156. Linda Hamilton Krieger, "Civil Rights Perestroika: Intergroup Relations after Affirmative Action," 86 Cal. L. Rev. 1251, 1313 (1998) (emphasis in original).
157. Robert K. Merton, "The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy," 8 Antioch Review 193, 197 (1948).
158. Jody David Armour, Negrophobia and Reasonable Racism: The Hidden Costs of Being Black in America 139 (1997).
159. Peter D. Blanck, Robert Rosenthal, and L. H. Cordell, Note, "The Appearance of Justice: Judges' Verbal and Nonverbal Behavior in Criminal Jury Trials," 89 Stan. L. Rev. 89 (1985)
160. Allen J. Hart, "Naturally Occurring Expectation Effects," 68 J. Personality and Soc. Psychol. 109 (1995).
161. Andrea M. Halverson et al., "Reducing the Biasing Effects of Judges' Nonverbal Behavior with Simplified Jury Instructions," 82 J. Applied Psychology 590 (1997).
162. See generally Nyla R. Branscombe et al., "Rape and Accident Counterfactuals:Who Might Have Done Otherwise and Would It Have Changed the Outcome?" 26 J. Applied Psychology 1042, 1061-64 (1996).
163. See, e.g., M. Gregg Bloche, "Race and Discretion in American Medicine," I Yale J. Health Pol'y, L., and Ethics 95, 117 (2001)
164. René Bowser, "Racial Profiling in Health Care: An Institutional Analysis of Medical Treatment Disparities," 7 Mich. J. Race and L. 79, 125-32 (2001)
165. Mary Crossley, "Infected Judgment: Legal Responses to Physician Bias," 48 Vill. L. Rev. 195, 296-302 (2003)
166. Barbara A. Noah, "Racial Disparities in the Delivery of Health Care," 35 San Diego L. Rev. 135, 169-70 (1998)
167. Sidney D. Watson, "Race, Ethnicity and Quality of Care: Inequalities and Incentives," 27 Am. J. L. and Med. 203, 204-05 (2001).
168. But see Michael S. Shin, Note, "Redressing Wounds: Finding a Legal Framework to Remedy Racial Disparities in Medical Care," 90 Cal. L. Rev. 2047, 2096-100 (2002).
169. René Bowser, "Racial Bias in Medical Treatment," 105 Dick. L. Rev. 365, 370 (2001).
170. David A. Harris, Profiles in Injustice: Why Racial Profiling Cannot Work 146 (2002).