Palaeomicrobiology of tuberculosis

Paleomicrobiology: Past Human Infections

Volumn , Issue , 2008, Pages 75-97

  Donoghue, Helen D ^a  

^a Windeyer Institute   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84900282475     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1007/978-3-540-75855-6_6     Document Type: Chapter

References (120)

1. Abu Al-Soud W, Rådstro̊m P (2000) Effects of amplification facilitators on diagnostic PCR in the presence of blood, feces and meat. J Clin Microbiol 38:4463-4470
2. Armelagos GJ, Harper KN (2005) Genomics at the origins of agriculture, part two. Evol Anthropol 14:109-121
3. Armelagos GJ, Brown PJ, Turner B (2005) Evolutionary, historical and political economic perspectives on health and disease. Soc Sci Med 61:755-765
4. Arriaza BT, Salo W, Aufderheide AC, Holcomb TA (1995) Pre-Colombian tuberculosis in Northern Chile: molecular and skeletal evidence. Am J Phys Anthropol 98:37-45
5. Aufderheide A, Rodriguez Martin C (1998) The Cambridge encyclopedia of human paleopathology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
6. Baker L, Brown T, Maiden MC, Drobniewski F (2004) Silent nucleotide polymorphisms and a phylogeny for Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Emerg Infect Dis 10:1568-1577
7. Barnes P, Cave MD (2003) Molecular epidemiology of tuberculosis. N Engl J Med 349:1149-1156
8. Baron H, Hummel S, Herrmann B (1996) Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex DNA in ancient human bones. J Archaeol Sci 23:667-671
9. Boom R, Sol CJA, Salimans MMM, Jansen CL, Wertheim-van Dillen P M E, van der Noordaa J (1990) Rapid and simple method for purification of nucleic acids. J Clin Microbiol 28:495-503
10. Braun M, Cook DC, Pfeiffer S (1998) DNA from Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex identified in North American, pre-Colombian human skeletal remains. J Archaeol Sci 25:271-277
11. Brosch R, Gordon S V, Marmiesse M, Brodin P, Buchrieser C, Eiglmeier K, Garnier T, Gutierrez C, Hewinson G, Kremer K, Parsons LM, Pym AS, Samper S, van Soolingen D, Cole ST (2002) A new evolutionary scenario for the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 99:3684-3689
12. Brudey K, Driscoll JR, Rigouts L, Prodinger WM, Gori A, Al-Hajoj SA, Allix C, Aristimuño L, Arora J, Baumanis V, Binder L, Cafrune P, Cataldi A, Cheong S, Diel R, Ellermeier C, Evans JT, Fauville-Dufaux M, Ferdinand S, Garcia de Viedma D, Garzelli C, Gazzola L, Gomes HM, Guttierez MC, Hawkey PM, van Helden PD, Kadival GV, Kreiswirth BN, Kremer K, Kubin M, Kulkarni SP, Liens B, Lillebaek T, Ho ML, Martin C, Martin C, Mokrousov I, Narvskaïa O, Ngeow YF, Naumann L, Niemann S, Parwati I, Rahim Z, Rasolofo-Razanamparany V, Rasolonavalona T, Rossetti ML, Rüsch-Gerdes S, Sajduda A, Samper S, Shemyakin IG, Singh UB, Somoskovi A, Skuce RA, van Soolingen D, Streicher EM, Suffys PN, Tortoli E, Tracevska T, Vincent V, Victor TC, Warren RM, Yap SF, Zaman K, Portaels F, Rastogi N, Sola C (2006) Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex genetic diversity: mining the fourth international spoligotyping database (SpolDB4) for classification, population genetics and epidemiology. BMC Microbiology 6:23 http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2180-6-23
13. Butler WR, Guthertz LS (2001) Mycolic acid analysis by high-performance liquid chromatography for identification of Mycobacterium species. Clin Microbiol Rev 14:704-726
14. Canci A, Minozzi S, Borgognini Tarli SM (1996) New evidence of tuberculous spondylitis from Neolithic Liguria (Italy). Int J Osteoarchaeol 6:497-501
15. Cano RJ, Tiefenbrunner F, Ubaldi M, Del Cueto C, Luciani S, Cox T, Orkand P, Künzel KH, Rollo F (2000) Sequence analysis of bacterial DNA in the colon and stomach of the Tyrolean Iceman. Am J Phys Anthropol 112:297-309
16. Clark GA, Kelley MA, Hill MC (1987) The evolution of mycobacterial disease in human populations Curr Anthropol 28:45-62
17. Collins DM, Stephens DM (1991) Identification of an insertion sequence, IS1081, in Mycobacterium bovis. FEMS Microbiol Lett 67:11-15
18. Crubézy E, Ludes B, Poveda JD, Clayton J, Crouau-Roy B, Montagnon D (1998) Identification of Mycobacterium DNA in an Egyptian Pott's disease of 5, 400 years old. C R Acad Sci III-Vie 321:941-951
19. Daniel TM (2000) The origins and precolonial epidemiology of tuberculosis in the Americas: can we figure them out? Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 4:395-400
20. Donoghue HD, Spigelman M (2006) Pathogenic microbial ancient DNA: a problem or an opportunity? Proc R Soc B 273:641-642
21. Donoghue HD, Spigelman J, Zias J, Gernaey-Child AM, Minnikin DE (1998) Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex DNA in calcified pleura from remains 1400 years old. Lett Appl Microbiol 27:265-269
22. Donoghue HD, Spigelman M, Greenblatt CL, Lev-Maor G, Kahila Bar-Gal G, Matheson C, Vernon K, Nerlich AG, Zink AR (2004) Tuberculosis: from prehistory to Robert Koch, as revealed by ancient DNA. Lancet Infect Dis 4:584-592
23. Donoghue HD, Marcsik A, Matheson C, Vernon K, Nuorala E, Molto JE, Greenblatt CL, Spigelman M (2005) Co-infection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Mycobacterium leprae in human archaeological samples: a possible explanation for the historical decline of leprosy. Proc R Soc B 272:389-394
24. Donoghue HD, Spigelman M, Grant P, Klein A, Shouval D, et al (2007) Microbiological investigation of a Korean medieval child mummy found in Yangju. In: Proceedings of the 6th World Congress on Mummy Studies, Teguise, Lanzerote, Canary Islands, Spain, 20-24 February 2007
25. Drancourt M, Raoult D (2005) Palaeomicrobiology: current issues and perspectives. Nat Rev Microbiol 3:23-35
26. Drobniewski FA, Caws M, Gibson A, Young D (2003) Modern laboratory diagnosis of tuberculosis. Lancet Infect Dis 3:141-147
27. Dziadek J, Sajduda A, Borun M (2001) Specificity of insertion sequence-based PCR assays for Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 5:569-574
28. Eisenach KD, Cave MD, Bates JH, Crawford JT (1990) Polymerase chain reaction amplification of a repetitive DNA sequence specific for Mycobacterium tuberculosis. J Infect Dis 161:977-981
29. Elston DM (2006) The hygiene hypothesis and atopy: bring back the parasites? J Am Acad Dermatol 54:172-179
30. Faerman M, Jankauskas R, Gorski A, Bercovier H, Greenblatt CL (1997) Prevalence of human tuberculosis in a Medieval population of Lithuania studied by ancient DNA analysis. Ancient Biomol 1:205-214
31. Fernando SL, Britton WJ (2006) Genetic susceptibility to mycobacterial disease in humans. Immunol Cell Biol 84:125-137
32. Fletcher HA, Donoghue HD, Holton J, Pap I, Spigelman M (2003a) Widespread occurrence of Mycobacterium tuberculosis DNA from 18th-19th Century Hungarians. Am J Phys Anthropol 120:144-152
33. Fletcher HA, Donoghue HD, Taylor GM, van der Zanden AGM, Spigelman M (2003b) Molecular analysis of Mycobacterium tuberculosis from a family of 18th century Hungarians. Microbiology 149:143-151
34. Forbes BA, Hicks KE (1996) Substances interfering with direct detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in clinical specimens by PCR: effects of bovine serum albumin. J Clin Microbiol 34:2125-2128
35. Formicola V, Milanesi Q, Scarsini C (1987) Evidence of spinal tuberculosis at the beginning of the fourth millennium BC from Arene Candide cave (Liguria, Italy). Am J Phys Anthropol 72:1-6
36. Fusegawa H, Wang BH, Sakurai K, Nagasawa K, Okauchi M, Nagakura K (2003) Outbreak of tuberculosis in a 2000-year-old Chinese population. Kansenshogaku Zasshi 77:146-149
37. Gagneux S, DeRiemer K, Van T, Kato-Maeda M, de Jong BC, Narayanan S, Nicol M, Niemann S, Kremer K, Gutierrez MC, Hilty M, Hopewell PC, Small PM (2006) Variable host-pathogen compatibility in Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103:2869-2873
38. Garay SM (1996) Pulmonary tuberculosis In: Rom WN, Garay SM (eds) Tuberculosis. Little Brown, Boston, pp 373-412
39. Gernaey AM, Minnikin DE, Copley MS, Power JJ, Ahmed AMS, Dixon RA, Roberts CA, Robertson DJ, Nolan J, Chamberlain A (1998) Detecting ancient tuberculosis. Internet Archaeol 5: http://intarch.ac.uk/journal/issue5/gernaey- index.html
40. Gernaey AM, Minnikin DE, Copley MS, Dixon RA, Middleton JC, Roberts CA (2001) Mycolic acids and ancient DNA confirm an osteological diagnosis of tuberculosis. Tuberculosis (Edinb) 81:259-265
41. Go̊mez I Prat J, Mendonça de Souza SMF (2003) Prehistoric tuberculosis in America: adding comments to a literature review. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 98(Suppl 1):151-159
42. Gordon S V, Heym B, Parkhill J, Barrell B, Cole ST (1999) New insertion sequences and a novel repeated sequence in the genome of Mycobacterium tuberculosis H37Rv. Microbiology 145:881-892
43. Go̊therstro̊m A, Collins MJ, Angerbjo̊rn A, Lidén K (2002) Bone preservation and DNA amplification. Archaeometry 44:395-404
44. Grange JM (1995) Human aspects of Mycobacterium bovis infection. In: Thoen CO, Steele JH (eds) Mycobacterium bovis infection on animals and humans. Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa, pp 29-46
45. Gutierrez MC, Brisse S, Brosch R, Fabre M, Omaïs B, Marmiesse M, Supply P, Vincent V (2005) Ancient origin and gene mosaicism of the progenitor of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. PLoS Pathog 1:55-61
46. Haas CJ, Zink A, Molnár E, Szeimies U, Reischl U, Marcsik A, Ardagna Y, Dutour O, Pálfi G, Nerlich AG (2000) Molecular evidence for different stages of tuberculosis in ancient bone samples from Hungary. Am J Phys Anthropol 113:293-304
47. Haas F, Haas SS (1996) The origins of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and the notion of its contagiousness In: Rom WN, Garay SM (eds) Tuberculosis. Little Brown, Boston, pp 3-19
48. Hänni C, Brousseau T, Laudet V, Stehelin D (1995) Isopropanol precipitation removes PCR inhibitors from ancient bone extracts. Nucleic Acids Res 23:881-882
49. Hardie RM, Watson JM (1992) Mycobacterium bovis in England and Wales: past, present and future. Epidemiol Infect 109:23-33
50. Hirsh AE, Tsolaki AG, DeRiemer K, Feldman MW, Small PM (2004) Stable association between strains of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and their human host populations. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 101:4871-4876
51. Hofreiter M, Serre D, Poinar HN, Kuch M, Pääbo S (2001) Ancient DNA. Nat Rev Genet 2:353-359
52. Ho̊ss M, Pääbo S (1993) DNA extraction from Pleistocene bones by a silica-based purification method. Nucleic Acids Res 21:3913-3914
53. Huard RC, Fabre M, de Haas P, Lazzarini LC, van Soolingen D, Cousins D, Ho JL (2006) Novel genetic polymorphisms that further delineate the phylogeny of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex. J Bacteriol 188:4271-4287
54. Huggett JF, McHugh TD, Zumla A (2003) Tuberculosis: amplification-based clinical diagnostic techniques. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 35:1407-1412
55. Hutás I (1999) The history of tuberculosis in Hungary. In: Pálfi G, Dutour O, Deák J, Hutás I (eds) Tuberculosis past and present. Golden Books/Tuberculosis Foundation, Budapest, pp 39-42
56. Kamerbeek J, Schouls L, Kolk A., van Agterveld M, van Soolingen D, Kuijper S, Bunschoten A, Molhuizen H, Shaw R, Goyal M, van Embden J (1997) Simultaneous detection and strain differentiation of Mycobacterium tuberculosis for diagnosis and epidemiology. J Clin Microbiol 35:907-914
57. Kemp BM, Monroe C, Smith DG (2006) Repeat silica extraction: a simple technique for the removal of PCR inhibitors from DNA extracts. J Archaeol Sci 33:1680-1689
58. Kim SB, Shin JE, Park SS, Bok GD, Chang YP, Kim J, Chung YH, Yi YS, Shin MH, Chang BS, Shin DH, Kim MJ (2006) Endoscopic investigation of the internal organs of a 15th-century child mummy from Yangju, Korea. J Anatomy 209:681-688
59. Konomi N, Lebwohl E, Mowbray K, Tattersall I, Zhang D (2002) Detection of mycobacterial DNA in Andean mummies. J Clin Microbiol 40:4738-4740
60. Lambert PA (2002) Cellular impermeability and uptake of biocides and antibiotics in Gram-positive bacteria and mycobacteria. J Appl Microbiol 92(Suppl):46S-54S
61. Mackowiak PA, Tiesler Bios V, Aguilar M, Buikstra JE (2005) On the origin of American tuberculosis. Clin Infect Dis 41:515-518
62. Malik ANJ, Godfrey-Fausset P (2005) Effects of genetic variability of Mycobacterium tuberculosis strains on the presentation of disease. Lancet Infect Dis 5:174-183
63. Manchester K (1984) Tuberculosis and leprosy in antiquity: an interpretation. Med History 28:162-173
64. Mark L, Patonai Z, Molnar E, Marcsik A (2006) High-throughput mass spectroscopic determination of ancient pathological biomarkers. In: Proceedings of the 16th Paleopathology Association European Meeting, 28 August-1 September 2006, Santorini Island, Greece
65. Mathema B, Kurepina NE, Bifani PJ, Kreiswirth BN (2006) Molecular epidemiology of tuberculosis: current insights. Clin Microbiol Rev 19:658-685
66. Mays S, Taylor GM, Legge AJ, Young DB, Turner-Walker G (2001) Paleopathological and biomolecular study of tuberculosis in a medieval skeletal collection from England. Am J Phys Anthropol 114:298-311
67. Mays S, Fysh E, Taylor GM (2002) Investigation of the link between visceral surface rib lesions and tuberculosis in a Medieval skeletal series from England using ancient DNA. Am J Phys Anthropol 119:27-36
68. Minnikin DE, Kremer L, Dover LG, Besra GS (2002) The methyl-branched fortifications of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Chem Biol 9:545-553
69. Mokrousov I, Ly HM, Otten T, Lan NN, Vyshnevskyi B, Hoffner S, Narvskaya O (2005) Origin and primary dispersal of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis Beijing genotype: clues from human phylogeography. Genome Res 15:1357-1364
70. Nerlich AG, Haas CJ, Zink A, Szeimes U, Hagedorn HG (1997) Molecular evidence for tuberculosis in an ancient Egyptian mummy. Lancet 350:1404
71. Nuorala E, Go̊therstro̊m A, Ahlstro̊m T, Donoghue HD, Spigelman M, Lidén, K (2004) MTB complex DNA in a Scandinavian Neolithic passage grave. Paper I, Molecular Palaeopathology. Ancient DNA analyses of the bacterial diseases tuberculosis and leprosy. In: Theses and Papers in Scientific Archaeology 6. Archaeological Research Laboratory, Stockholm University, Stockholm
72. O'Reilly LM, Daborn CJ (1995) The epidemiology of Mycobacterium bovis infections in animals and man: a review. Tuber Lung Dis 76 Suppl 1:1-46
73. O'Rourke DH, Hayes MG, Carlyle SW (2000) Ancient DNA studies in physical anthropology. Annu Rev Anthropol 29:217-242
74. Ortner DJ, Putschar WG (1981) Identification of pathological conditions on human skeletal remains. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington DC
75. Pääbo S, Poinar H, Serre D, Jaenicke-Despres V, Hebler J, Rohland N, Kuch M, Krause J, Vigilant L, Hofreiter M (2004) Genetic analyses from ancient DNA. Annu Rev Genet 38:645-679
76. Pap I, Józsa L, Repa I, Bajzik G, Lakhani SR, Donoghue HD, Spigelman M (1999) 18-19th century tuberculosis in naturally mummified individuals (Vác, Hungary). In: Pálfi G, Dutour O, Deák J, Hutás I (eds) Tuberculosis past and present. Golden Books/Tuberculosis Foundation, Budapest, pp 421-428
77. Parsons LM, Brosch R, Cole ST, Somosko̊vi Á, Loder A, Bretzel G, Van Soolingen D, Hale YM, Salfinger M (2002) Rapid and simple approach for identification of Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex isolates by PCR-based genomic deletion analysis. J Clin Microbiol 40:2339-2345
78. Poinar HN, Stankiewicz BA (1999) Protein preservation and DNA retrieval from ancient tissues. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 96:8426-8431
79. Poinar HN, Hofreiter M, Spaulding WG, Martin PS, Stankiewicz BA, Bland H, Evershed RP, Possnert G, Pääbo S (1998) Molecular coproscopy: dung and diet of the extinct Ground Sloth Nothrotheriops shastensis. Science 281:402-406
80. Raff J, Cook DC, Kaestle F (2006) Tuberculosis in the New World: a study of ribs from the Schild Mississippian population, West-Central Illinois. Mem Inst Owaldo Cruz 101 [Suppl II]: 25-27
81. Ratledge C (2004) Iron, mycobacteria and tuberculosis. Tuberculosis (Edinb) 84:110-130
82. Resnick D, Niwayama G (1995) Osteomyelitis, septic arthritis and soft tissue infection: organisms. In: Resnick D (ed) Diagnosis of bone and joint disorders. Saunders, Edinburgh, pp 2448-2558
83. Roberts CA, Buikstra JE (2003a) The development of tuberculosis from earliest times to the development of drugs. In: Davies PDO (ed) Clinical tuberculosis, 3rd edn. Arnold, London, pp 3-20
84. Roberts CA, Buikstra JE (2003b) The bioarchaeology of tuberculosis: a global view on a reemerging disease. University Press of Florida, Gainesville, FL
85. Rothschild BM, Martin LD (2003) Frequency of pathology in a large natural sample from Natural Trap Cave with special remarks on erosive disease in the Pleistocene. Reumatismo 55:58-65
86. Rothschild BM, Martin LD (2006) Did ice-age bovids spread tuberculosis? Naturwissenschaften 93:565-569
87. Rothschild BM, Martin LD, Lev G, Bercovier H, Bar-Gal GK, Greenblatt C, Donoghue H, Spigelman M, Brittain D (2001) Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex DNA from an extinct bison dated 17, 000 years before the present. Clin Infect Dis 33:305-311
88. Salo WL, Aufderheide AC, Buikstra J, Holcomb TA (1994) Identification of Mycobacterium tuberculosis DNA in a pre-Columbian Peruvian mummy. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 91:2091-2094
89. Santos AL, Roberts CA (2006) Anatomy of a serial killer: differential diagnosis of tuberculosis based on rib lesions of adult individuals from the Coimbra Identified Skeletal Collection, Portugal. Am J Phys Anthropol 130:38-49
90. Spigelman M, Donoghue HD (2003) Paleobacteriology with special reference to pathogenic mycobacteria. In: Greenblatt CL, Spigelman M (eds) Emerging pathogens: archaeology, ecology and evolution of infectious disease. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp 175-188
91. Spigelman M, Greenblatt CL (1998) A guide to digging for pathogens. In: Greenblatt CL (ed) Digging for pathogens: ancient emerging diseases - their evolutionary, anthropological, and archaeological context. Balaban, Rehovot, Israel, pp 345-361
92. Spigelman M, Lemma E (1993) The use of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to detect Mycobacterium tuberculosis in ancient skeletons. Int J Osteoarchaeol 3:137-413
93. Spigelman M, Matheson C, Lev G, Greenblatt C, Donoghue HD (2002) Confirmation of the presence of Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex-specific DNA in three archaeological specimens. Int J Osteoarchaeol 12:393-400
94. Spigelman M, Greenblatt CL, Vernon K, Zylber MI, Sheridan SG, Van Gerven DP, Shaheem Z, Donoghue HD (2005) Preliminary findings on the paleomicrobiological study of 400 naturally mummified human remains from upper Nubia. J Biol Res 80:91-95
95. Spigelman M, Pap I, Donoghue HD (2006) A death from Langerhans cell histiocytosis and tuberculosis in 18th century Hungary - what palaeopathology can tell us today. Leukemia 20:740-742
96. Sreevatsan S, Escalante P, Pan X, Gillies DA 2nd, Siddiqui S, Khalaf CN, Kreiswirth BN, Bifani P, Adams LG, Ficht T, Perumaalla VS, Cave MD, van Embden JD, Musser JM (1996) Identification of a polymorphic nucleotide in oxyR specific for Mycobacterium bovis. J Clin Microbiol 34:2007-2010
97. Sreevatsan S, Pan X, Stockbauer KE, Connell ND, Kreiswirth BN, Whittam TS, Musser JM (1997) Restricted structural gene polymorphism in the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex indicates evolutionarily recent global dissemination. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 94:9869-9874
98. Steinbock RT (1976) Paleopathological diagnosis and interpretation: bone disease in ancient human populations. Thomas, Springfield, IL
99. Sterling TR, Pope DS, Bishai WR, Harrington S, Gershon RR, Chaisson RE (2000) Transmission of Mycobacterium tuberculosis from a cadaver to an embalmer. New Engl J Med 342:246-248
100. Sutlovic D, Gojanovic MD, Andelinovic S, Gugic, Primorac D (2005) Ta q polymerase reverses inhibition of quantitative real time polymerase chain reaction by humic acid. Croat Med J 46:556-562
101. Tayles N, Buckley HR (2004) Leprosy and tuberculosis in Iron Age southeast Asia? Am J Phys Anthropol 125:239-256
102. Taylor GM, Crossey M, Saldanha J, Waldron T (1996) DNA from Mycobacterium tuberculosis identified in Mediaeval human skeletal remains using polymerase chain reaction. J Archaeol Sci 23:789-798
103. Taylor GM, Goyal M, Legge AJ, Shaw RJ, Young D (1999) Genotypic analysis of Mycobacterium tuberculosis from mediaeval human remains. Microbiology 145:899-904
104. Taylor GM, Mays S, Legge AJ, Ho TBL, Young DB (2001) Genetic analysis of tuberculosis in human remains. Ancient Biomol 3:267-280
105. Taylor GM, Stewart GR, Cooke M, Chaplin S, Ladva S, Kirkup J, Palmer S, Young DB (2003) Koch's Bacillus - a look at the first isolate of Mycobacterium tuberculosis from a modern perspective. Microbiology 149:3213-3220
106. Taylor GM, Young DB, Mays SA (2005) Genotypic analysis of the earliest known prehistoric case of tuberculosis in Britain. J Clin Microbiol 43:2236-2240
107. Taylor GM, Murphy E, Hopkins R, Rutland P, Chitov Y (2007) First report of Mycobacterium bovis DNA in human remains from the Iron Age. Microbiology 153:1243-1249
108. Van Gerven DP, Sandford MK, Hummert JR (1981) Mortality and culture change in Nubia's Batn el Hajar. J Hum Evol 10:395-408
109. Van Soolingen D (2001) Molecular epidemiology of tuberculosis and other mycobacterial infections: main methodologies and achievements. J Intern Med 249:1-26
110. Weed LA, Baggenstoss AH (1951) The isolation of pathogens from tissues of embalmed human bodies. Am J Clin Pathol 21:1114-1120
111. Weiss RA, McMichael AJ (2004) Social and environmental risk factors in the emergence of infectious diseases. Nature Med 10 [Suppl]: 570-576
112. Wilbur AK, Buikstra JE (2006) Patterns of tuberculosis in the Americas - How can modern biomedicine inform the ancient past? Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 101 [Suppl II]: 59-66
113. World Health Organisation (2006) http://www.who.int/mediacentre/ factsheets/fs104/en/index.html
114. Zink A, Haas CJ, Reischl U, Szeimies U, Nerlich AG (2001) Molecular analysis of skeletal tuberculosis in an ancient Egyptian population. J Med Microbiol 50:355-366
115. Zink AR, Reischl U, Wolf H, Nerlich AG (2002) Molecular analysis of ancient microbial infections. FEMS Microbiol Lett 213:141-147
116. Zink AR, Grabner W, Reischl U, Nerlich AG (2003a) Molecular study on human tuberculosis in three geographically distinct and time delineated populations from ancient Egypt. Epidemiol Infect 130:239-249
117. Zink AR, Sola C, Reischl U, Grabner W, Rastogi N, Wolf H, Nerlich AG (2003b) Characterization of Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex DNAs from Egyptian mummies by spoligotyping. J Clin Microbiol 41:359-367
118. Zink AR, Grabner W, Nerlich AG (2005a) Molecular identification of human tuberculosis in recent and historic bone tissue samples: the role of molecular techniques for the study of historic tuberculosis. Am J Phys Anthropol 126:32-47
119. Zink AR, Ko̊hler S, Motamedi N, Reischl U, Wolf H, Nerlich AG (2005b) Preservation and identification of ancient M. tuberculosis complex DNA in Egyptian mummies. J Biol Res 80:84-87
120. Zink A, Spigelman M, Schraut B, Greenblatt C, Nerlich A, Donoghue H (2006) Leishmaniasis in ancient Egypt and Upper Nubia. Emerg Infect Dis 12:1616-1617