Diagnosis, management, and prognosis of preschool wheeze

The Lancet

Volumn 383, Issue 9928, 2014, Pages 1593-1604

  Ducharme, Francine M ^a,b,c   Tse, Sze M ^a,b   Chauhan, Bhupendrasinh ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MONTREAL   (Canada)

^b Department of Paediatrics ^*  (United States)

^c UNIVERSITÉ DE MONTRÉAL   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CORTICOSTEROID; LEUKOTRIENE RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT;

ASTHMA; BRONCHIOLITIS; DISEASE COURSE; ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR; HEALTH CARE; HUMAN; LUNG FUNCTION; LUNG FUNCTION TEST; MORBIDITY; ONSET AGE; PHENOTYPE; PRENATAL EXPOSURE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROGNOSIS; REMISSION; REVIEW; TREATMENT OUTCOME; WHEEZING;

ADRENAL CORTEX HORMONES; ANTI-ASTHMATIC AGENTS; ASTHMA; CHILD, PRESCHOOL; COST OF ILLNESS; DIAGNOSIS, DIFFERENTIAL; FEMALE; FORCED EXPIRATORY VOLUME; HUMANS; INFANT; PHENOTYPE; PREGNANCY; PRENATAL EXPOSURE DELAYED EFFECTS; PROGNOSIS; RESPIRATORY SOUNDS; RISK FACTORS;

EID: 84899975771     PISSN: 01406736     EISSN: 1474547X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(14)60615-2     Document Type: Review

References (119)

1. Garner R, Kohen D. Changes in the prevalence of asthma among Canadian children. Health Rep 2008; 19: 45-50.
2. Lougheed MD, Garvey N, Chapman KR, et al, and the Ontario Respiratory Outcomes Research Network. The Ontario Asthma Regional Variation Study: emergency department visit rates and the relation to hospitalization rates. Chest 2006; 129: 909-17.
3. Karaca-Mandic P, Jena AB, Joyce GF, Goldman DP. Out-of-pocket medication costs and use of medications and health care services among children with asthma. JAMA 2012; 307: 1284-91.
4. Østergaard MS, Nantanda R, Tumwine JK, Aabenhus R. Childhood asthma in low income countries: an invisible killer? Prim Care Respir J 2012; 21: 214-19.
5. Szefl er SJ, Zeiger RS, Haselkorn T, et al. Economic burden of impairment in children with severe or diffi cult-to-treat asthma. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 2011; 107: 110-19, e1.
6. Bisgaard H, Szefl er S. Prevalence of asthma-like symptoms in young children. Pediatr Pulmonol 2007; 42: 723-28.
7. Martinez FD, Wright AL, Taussig LM, Holberg CJ, Halonen M, Morgan WJ, and the Group Health Medical Associates. Asthma and wheezing in the first six years of life. N Engl J Med 1995; 332: 133-38.
8. Nair H, Nokes DJ, Gessner BD, et al. Global burden of acute lower respiratory infections due to respiratory syncytial virus in young children: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet 2010; 375: 1545-55.
9. Koehoorn M, Karr CJ, Demers PA, Lencar C, Tamburic L, Brauer M. Descriptive epidemiological features of bronchiolitis in a population-based cohort. Pediatrics 2008; 122: 1196-203.
10. American Academy of Pediatrics Subcommittee on Diagnosis and Management of Bronchiolitis. Diagnosis and management of bronchiolitis. Pediatrics 2006; 118: 1774-93.
11. Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network. Bronchiolitis in children: a national clinical guideline. http://sign.ac.uk/pdf/sign91. pdf (accessed Feb 22, 2011).
12. Gadomski AM, Brower M. Bronchodilators for bronchiolitis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2010; 12: CD001266.
13. Hartling L, Bialy LM, Vandermeer B, et al. Epinephrine for bronchiolitis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2011; 6: CD003123.
14. Umoren R, Odey F, Meremikwu MM. Steam inhalation or humidifi ed oxygen for acute bronchiolitis in children up to three years of age. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2011; 1: CD006435.
15. Everard ML, Bara A, Kurian M, Elliott TM, Ducharme F. Anticholinergic drugs for wheeze in children under the age of two years. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2002; 1: CD001279.
16. Fernandes RM, Bialy LM, Vandermeer B, et al. Glucocorticoids for acute viral bronchiolitis in infants and young children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2013; 6: CD004878.
17. Zhang L, Mendoza-Sassi RA, Wainwright C, Klassen TP. Nebulized hypertonic saline solution for acute bronchiolitis in infants. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2008; 7: CD006458.
18. Hartling L, Fernandes RM, Bialy L, et al. Steroids and bronchodilators for acute bronchiolitis in the first two years of life: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ 2011; 342: d1714.
19. Cates CJ, Crilly JA, Rowe BH. Holding chambers (spacers) versus nebulisers for beta-agonist treatment of acute asthma. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2013; 9: CD000052.
20. Castro-Rodríguez JA, Rodrigo GJ. Effi cacy of inhaled corticosteroids in infants and preschoolers with recurrent wheezing and asthma: a systematic review with meta-analysis. Pediatrics 2009; 123: e519-25.
21. Stein RT. Early-life viral bronchiolitis in the causal pathway of childhood asthma: is the evidence there yet? Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2008; 178: 1097-98.
22. Global Initiative for Asthma. Global strategy for asthma management and prevention. 2012. http://www.ginasthma.org/documents/4 (accessed Jan 6, 2014).
23. Lougheed MD, Lemiere C, Ducharme FM, et al, and the Canadian Thoracic Society Asthma Clinical Assembly. Canadian Thoracic Society 2012 guideline update: diagnosis and management of asthma in preschoolers, children and adults. Can Respir J 2012; 19: 127-64.
24. British Thoracic S, Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines N. British guidelines on the management of asthma-a national clinical guideline. 2011. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/document-library/clinical-information/asthma/ btssign-guideline-on-the-managementof-asthma/(accessed Jan 6, 2014).
25. National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. NAEPP Expert Panel report. Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of asthma-update on selected topics. NIH publication No 02-5075. Bethesda, MD: National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, 2007.
26. Beydon N, Davis SD, Lombardi E, et al, and the American Thoracic Society/European Respiratory Society Working Group on Infant and Young Children Pulmonary Function Testing. An Official American Thoracic Society/European Respiratory Society statement: pulmonary function testing in preschool children. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2007; 175: 1304-45.
27. Becker A, Bérubé D, Chad Z, et al. Canadian pediatric asthma consensus guidelines, 2003 (updated to December 2004): Introduction. Can Med Assoc J 2005; 173 (suppl): S12-S4.
28. Brand PLP, Baraldi E, Bisgaard H, et al. Defi nition, assessment and treatment of wheezing disorders in preschool children: an evidence-based approach. Eur Respir J 2008; 32: 1096-110.
29. Lowe LA, Simpson A, Woodcock A, Morris J, Murray CS, Custovic A, and the NAC Manchester Asthma and Allergy Study Group. Wheeze phenotypes and lung function in preschool children. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2005; 171: 231-37.
30. Savenije OE, Granell R, Caudri D, et al. Comparison of childhood wheezing phenotypes in 2 birth cohorts: ALSPAC and PIAMA. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2011; 127: 1505-12, e14.
31. Henderson J, Granell R, Heron J, et al. Associations of wheezing phenotypes in the first 6 years of life with atopy, lung function and airway responsiveness in mid-childhood. Thorax 2008; 63: 974-80.
32. Brussee JE, Smit HA, Koopman LP, et al. Interrupter resistance and wheezing phenotypes at 4 years of age. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2004; 169: 209-13.
33. Stein RT, Martinez FD. Asthma phenotypes in childhood: lessons from an epidemiological approach. Paediatr Respir Rev 2004; 5: 155-61.
34. Collins SA, Pike KC, Inskip HM, et al, and the Southampton Women's Survey Study Group. Validation of novel wheeze phenotypes using longitudinal airway function and atopic sensitization data in the first 6 years of life: evidence from the Southampton Women's survey. Pediatr Pulmonol 2013; 48: 683-92.
35. Moffatt MF, Kabesch M, Liang L, et al. Genetic variants regulating ORMDL3 expression contribute to the risk of childhood asthma. Nature 2007; 448: 470-73.
36. Galanter J, Choudhry S, Eng C, et al. ORMDL3 gene is associated with asthma in three ethnically diverse populations. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2008; 177: 1194-200.
37. Granell R, Henderson AJ, Timpson N, et al. Examination of the relationship between variation at 17q21 and childhood wheeze phenotypes. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2013; 131: 685-94.
38. Calkan M, Bochkov YA, Kreiner-Møller E, et al. Rhinovirus wheezing illness and genetic risk of childhood-onset asthma. N Engl J Med 2013; 368: 1398-407.
39. Smith JA, Drake R, Simpson A, Woodcock A, Pickles A, Custovic A. Dimensions of respiratory symptoms in preschool children: population-based birth cohort study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2008; 177: 1358-63.
40. Spycher BD, Silverman M, Brooke AM, Minder CE, Kuehni CE. Distinguishing phenotypes of childhood wheeze and cough using latent class analysis. Eur Respir J 2008; 31: 974-81.
41. Bacharier LB, Boner A, Carlsen KH, et al, and the European Pediatric Asthma Group. Diagnosis and treatment of asthma in childhood: a PRACTALL consensus report. Allergy 2008; 63: 5-34.
42. Ducharme FM, Morin J, Davis GM, Gingras J, Noya FJ. High physician adherence to phenotype-specifi c asthma guidelines, but large variability in phenotype assessment in children. Curr Med Res Opin 2012; 28: 1561-70.
43. Schultz A, Devadason SG, Savenije OE, Sly PD, Le Souëf PN, Brand PL. The transient value of classifying preschool wheeze into episodic viral wheeze and multiple trigger wheeze. Acta Paediatr 2010; 99: 56-60.
44. Castro-Rodríguez JA, Holberg CJ, Wright AL, Martinez FD. A clinical index to defi ne risk of asthma in young children with recurrent wheezing. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2000; 162: 1403-06.
45. Devulapalli CS, Carlsen KCL, Håland G, et al. Severity of obstructive airways disease by age 2 years predicts asthma at 10 years of age. Thorax 2008; 63: 8-13.
46. Kurukulaaratchy RJ, Matthews S, Holgate ST, Arshad SH. Predicting persistent disease among children who wheeze during early life. Eur Respir J 2003; 22: 767-71.
47. Brand PLP. The asthma predictive index: not a useful tool in clinical practice. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2011; 127: 293-94.
48. Castro-Rodríguez JA. The asthma predictive index: a very useful tool for predicting asthma in young children. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2010; 126: 212-16.
49. Castro-Rodríguez JA, Cifuentes L, Rodríguez-Martínez CE. The asthma predictive index remains a useful tool to predict asthma in young children with recurrent wheeze in clinical practice. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2011; 127: 1082-83.
50. Papi A, Nicolini G, Baraldi E, et al, and the BEclomethasone and Salbutamol Treatment (BEST) for Children Study Group. Regular vs prn nebulized treatment in wheeze preschool children. Allergy 2009; 64: 1463-71.
51. Bacharier LB, Phillips BR, Zeiger RS, et al, and the CARE Network. Episodic use of an inhaled corticosteroid or leukotriene receptor antagonist in preschool children with moderate-to-severe intermittent wheezing. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2008; 122: 1127-35, e8.
52. Grad R, Morgan WJ. Long-term outcomes of early-onset wheeze and asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2012; 130: 299-307.
53. Saude EJ, Skappak CD, Regush S, et al. Metabolomic profi ling of asthma: diagnostic utility of urine nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2011; 127: 757-64.e6.
54. Martinez FD, Vercelli D. Asthma. Lancet 2013; 382: 1360-72.
55. Bouzigon E, Corda E, Aschard H, et al. Effect of 17q21 variants and smoking exposure in early-onset asthma. N Engl J Med 2008; 359: 1985-94.
56. Smit LAM, Bouzigon E, Pin I, et al, and the EGEA Cooperative Group. 17q21 variants modify the association between early respiratory infections and asthma. Eur Respir J 2010; 36: 57-64.
57. Wjst M, Sargurupremraj M, Arnold M. Genome-wide association studies in asthma: what they really told us about pathogenesis. Curr Opin Allergy Clin Immunol 2013; 13: 112-18.
58. Martel MJ, Rey E, Beauchesne MF, et al. Control and severity of asthma during pregnancy are associated with asthma incidence in offspring: two-stage case-control study. Eur Respir J 2009; 34: 579-87.
59. Håland G, Carlsen KCL, Sandvik L, et al, and the ORAACLE. Reduced lung function at birth and the risk of asthma at 10 years of age. N Engl J Med 2006; 355: 1682-89.
60. Turner SW, Palmer LJ, Rye PJ, et al. The relationship between infant airway function, childhood airway responsiveness, and asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2004; 169: 921-27.
61. Bisgaard H, Jensen SM, Bønnelykke K. Interaction between asthma and lung function growth in early life. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2012; 185: 1183-89.
62. Firoozi F, Lemière C, Ducharme FM, et al. Effect of maternal moderate to severe asthma on perinatal outcomes. Respir Med 2010; 104: 1278-87.
63. Sonnenschein-van der Voort AMM, Jaddoe VWV, Raat H, et al. Fetal and infant growth and asthma symptoms in preschool children: the Generation R Study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2012; 185: 731-37.
64. Taussig LM, Wright AL, Holberg CJ, Halonen M, Morgan WJ, Martinez FD. Tucson Children's Respiratory Study: 1980 to present. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2003; 111: 661-75.
65. Ryan PH, Bernstein DI, Lockey J, et al. Exposure to traffi c-related particles and endotoxin during infancy is associated with wheezing at age 3 years. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2009; 180: 1068-75.
66. Perzanowski MS, Miller RL, Thorne PS, et al. Endotoxin in inner-city homes: associations with wheeze and eczema in early childhood. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2006; 117: 1082-89.
67. Litonjua AA, Milton DK, Celedon JC, Ryan L, Weiss ST, Gold DR. A longitudinal analysis of wheezing in young children: the independent effects of early life exposure to house dust endotoxin, allergens, and pets. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2002; 110: 736-42.
68. Amberbir A, Medhin G, Alem A, Britton J, Davey G, Venn A. The role of acetaminophen and geohelminth infection on the incidence of wheeze and eczema: a longitudinal birth-cohort study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2011; 183: 165-70.
69. Eneli I, Sadri K, Camargo C Jr, Barr RG. Acetaminophen and the risk of asthma: the epidemiologic and pathophysiologic evidence. Chest 2005; 127: 604-12.
70. Ball TM, Castro-Rodríguez JA, Griffi th KA, Holberg CJ, Martinez FD, Wright AL. Siblings, day-care attendance, and the risk of asthma and wheezing during childhood. N Engl J Med 2000; 343: 538-43.
71. Wu P, Dupont WD, Griffi n MR, et al. Evidence of a causal role of winter virus infection during infancy in early childhood asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2008; 178: 1123-29.
72. Oddy WH, de Klerk NH, Sly PD, Holt PG. The effects of respiratory infections, atopy, and breastfeeding on childhood asthma. Eur Respir J 2002; 19: 899-905.
73. Holt PG, Sly PD. Prevention of allergic respiratory disease in infants: current aspects and future perspectives. Curr Opin Allergy Clin Immunol 2007; 7: 547-55.
74. Sigurs N, Gustafsson PM, Bjarnason R, et al. Severe respiratory syncytial virus bronchiolitis in infancy and asthma and allergy at age 13. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2005; 171: 137-41.
75. Lemanske RF Jr, Jackson DJ, Gangnon RE, et al. Rhinovirus illnesses during infancy predict subsequent childhood wheezing. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2005; 116: 571-77.
76. Kusel MMH, de Klerk NH, Kebadze T, et al. Early-life respiratory viral infections, atopic sensitization, and risk of subsequent development of persistent asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2007; 119: 1105-10.
77. Jackson DJ, Gangnon RE, Evans MD, et al. Wheezing rhinovirus illnesses in early life predict asthma development in high-risk children. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2008; 178: 667-72.
78. Leigh R, Oyelusi W, Wiehler S, et al. Human rhinovirus infection enhances airway epithelial cell production of growth factors involved in airway remodeling. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2008; 121: 1238-45.e4.
79. Zhu L, Lee P-K, Lee W-M, Zhao Y, Yu D, Chen Y. Rhinovirus-induced major airway mucin production involves a novel TLR3-EGFRdependent pathway. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 2009; 40: 610-19.
80. Proud D, Turner RB, Winther B, et al. Gene expression profi les during in vivo human rhinovirus infection: insights into the host response. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2008; 178: 962-68.
81. Bisgaard H, Hermansen MN, Bønnelykke K, et al. Association of bacteria and viruses with wheezy episodes in young children: prospective birth cohort study. BMJ 2010; 341: c4978.
82. Jackson DJ, Evans MD, Gangnon RE, et al. Evidence for a causal relationship between allergic sensitization and rhinovirus wheezing in early life. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2012; 185: 281-85.
83. Wark PAB, Johnston SL, Bucchieri F, et al. Asthmatic bronchial epithelial cells have a defi cient innate immune response to infection with rhinovirus. J Exp Med 2005; 201: 937-47.
84. Bisgaard H, Hermansen MN, Loland L, Halkjaer LB, Buchvald F. Intermittent inhaled corticosteroids in infants with episodic wheezing. N Engl J Med 2006; 354: 1998-2005.
85. van der Gugten AC, Koopman M, Evelein AMV, Verheij TJM, Uiterwaal CSPM, van der Ent CK. Rapid early weight gain is associated with wheeze and reduced lung function in childhood. Eur Respir J 2012; 39: 403-10.
86. Rzehak P, Wijga AH, Keil T, et al, and the GA2LEN-WP 1.5 Birth Cohorts. Body mass index trajectory classes and incident asthma in childhood: results from 8 European Birth Cohorts-a Global Allergy and Asthma European Network initiative. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2013; 131: 1528-36.
87. Flexeder C, Thiering E, Brüske I, et al, and the GINIplus and LISAplus Study Group. Growth velocity during infancy and onset of asthma in school-aged children. Allergy 2012; 67: 257-64.
88. Rasmussen F, Hancox RJ. Mechanisms of obesity in asthma. Curr Opin Allergy Clin Immunol 2014; 14: 35-43.
89. Tantisira KG, Weiss ST. Complex interactions in complex traits: obesity and asthma. Thorax 2001; 56 (suppl 2): ii64-73.
90. Bisgaard H, Allen D, Milanowski J, Kalev I, Willits L, Davies P. Twelve-month safety and effi cacy of inhaled fl uticasone propionate in children aged 1 to 3 years with recurrent wheezing. Pediatrics 2004; 113: e87-94.
91. Wilson N, Sloper K, Silverman M. Effect of continuous treatment with topical corticosteroid on episodic viral wheeze in preschool children. Arch Dis Child 1995; 72: 317-20.
92. Guilbert TW, Morgan WJ, Zeiger RS, et al. Long-term inhaled corticosteroids in preschool children at high risk for asthma. N Engl J Med 2006; 354: 1985-97.
93. Storr J, Lenney CA, Lenney W. Nebulised beclomethasone dipropionate in preschool asthma. Arch Dis Child 1986; 61: 270-73.
94. Brand PLP, Luz García-García M, Morison A, Vermeulen JH, Weber HC. Ciclesonide in wheezy preschool children with a positive asthma predictive index or atopy. Respir Med 2011; 105: 1588-95.
95. Zeiger RS, Mauger D, Bacharier LB, et al, and the CARE Network of the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. Daily or intermittent budesonide in preschool children with recurrent wheezing. N Engl J Med 2011; 365: 1990-2001.
96. Bisgaard H, Zielen S, Garcia-Garcia ML, et al. Montelukast reduces asthma exacerbations in 2-to 5-year-old children with intermittent asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2005; 171: 315-22.
97. Valovirta E, Boza ML, Robertson CF, et al. Intermittent or daily montelukast versus placebo for episodic asthma in children. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 2011; 106: 518-26.
98. Ducharme FM, Lemire C, Noya FJ, et al. Preemptive use of high-dose fl uticasone for virus-induced wheezing in young children. N Engl J Med 2009; 360: 339-53.
99. Svedmyr J, Nyberg E, Thunqvist P, Asbrink-Nilsson E, Hedlin G. Prophylactic intermittent treatment with inhaled corticosteroids of asthma exacerbations due to airway infections in toddlers. Acta Paediatr 1999; 88: 42-47.
100. McKean M, Ducharme F. Inhaled steroids for episodic viral wheeze of childhood. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2000; 2: CD001107.
101. Robertson CF, Price D, Henry R, et al. Short-course montelukast for intermittent asthma in children: a randomized controlled trial. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2007; 175: 323-29.
102. Zhang LP. Prietsch SOM, Ducharme FM. Inhaled corticosteroids in children with persistent asthma effects on growth. Cochrane Database Syst Rev (in press).
103. Just J, Nicoloyanis N, Chauvin M, Pribil C, Grimfeld A, Duru G. Lack of eosinophilia can predict remission in wheezy infants? Clin Exp Allergy 2008; 38: 767-73.
104. To T, Gershon A, Wang C, Dell S, Cicutto L. Persistence and remission in childhood asthma: a population-based asthma birth cohort study. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2007; 161: 1197-204.
105. Horak E, Lanigan A, Roberts M, et al. Longitudinal study of childhood wheezy bronchitis and asthma: outcome at age 42. BMJ 2003; 326: 422-23.
106. Butland BK, Strachan DP. Asthma onset and relapse in adult life: the British 1958 birth cohort study. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 2007; 98: 337-43.
107. Sears MR, Greene JM, Willan AR, et al. A longitudinal, population-based, cohort study of childhood asthma followed to adulthood. N Engl J Med 2003; 349: 1414-22.
108. Phelan PD, Robertson CF, Olinsky A. The Melbourne Asthma Study: 1964-1999. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2002; 109: 189-94.
109. Strachan D, Gerritsen J. Long-term outcome of early childhood wheezing: population data. Eur Respir J Suppl 1996; 21: 42s-47s.
110. Oostveen E, Dom S, Desager K, Hagendorens M, De Backer W, Weyler J. Lung function and bronchodilator response in 4-year-old children with different wheezing phenotypes. Eur Respir J 2010; 35: 865-72.
111. Saglani S, Payne DN, Zhu J, et al. Early detection of airway wall remodeling and eosinophilic infl ammation in preschool wheezers. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2007; 176: 858-64.
112. Saglani S, Malmström K, Pelkonen AS, et al. Airway remodeling and infl ammation in symptomatic infants with reversible airfl ow obstruction. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2005; 171: 722-27.
113. Morgan WJ, Stern DA, Sherrill DL, et al. Outcome of asthma and wheezing in the first 6 years of life: follow-up through adolescence. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2005; 172: 1253-58.
114. Lau S, Illi S, Sommerfeld C, et al, and the Multicentre Allergy Study Group. Transient early wheeze is not associated with impaired lung function in 7-yr-old children. Eur Respir J 2003; 21: 834-41.
115. Stern DA, Morgan WJ, Halonen M, Wright AL, Martinez FD. Wheezing and bronchial hyper-responsiveness in early childhood as predictors of newly diagnosed asthma in early adulthood: a longitudinal birth-cohort study. Lancet 2008; 372: 1058-64.
116. Rasmussen F, Taylor DR, Flannery EM, et al. Risk factors for hospital admission for asthma from childhood to young adulthood: a longitudinal population study. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2002; 110: 220-27.
117. Chauhan BF, Chartrand C, Ducharme FM. Intermittent versus daily inhaled corticosteroids for persistent asthma in children and adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2013; 2: CD009611.
118. Pando S, Lemière C, Beauchesne MF, Perreault S, Forget A, Blais L. Suboptimal use of inhaled corticosteroids in children with persistent asthma: inadequate prescription, poor drug adherence, or both? Pharmacotherapy 2010; 30: 1109-16.
119. Ducharme FM, Noya FJ, Allen-Ramey FC, Maiese EM, Gingras J, Blais L. Clinical effectiveness of inhaled corticosteroids versus montelukast in children with asthma: prescription patterns and patient adherence as key factors. Curr Med Res Opin 2012; 28: 111-19.