Rare fungal infections in children: An updated review of the literature

Current Fungal Infection Reports

Volumn 8, Issue 1, 2014, Pages 21-36

  Pana, Zoi Dorothea ^a   Vikelouda, Katerina ^a   Roilides, Emmanuel ^a,b  

^a ARISTOTLE UNIVERSITY OF THESSALONIKI   (Greece)

^b Aristotle University and Hippokration General Hospital   (Greece)

Author keywords

Children; Dematiaceous fungi; Dimorphic fungal species; Hyaline molds; Rare yeast species; Zygomycetes

Indexed keywords

AMPHOTERICIN B; AMPHOTERICIN B LIPID COMPLEX; ANTIFUNGAL AGENT; CASPOFUNGIN; ECHINOCANDIN; FLUCONAZOLE; FLUCYTOSINE; GAMMA INTERFERON; ITRACONAZOLE; POSACONAZOLE; POTASSIUM IODIDE; SERTACONAZOLE; TERBINAFINE; TRIAZOLE DERIVATIVE; VORICONAZOLE;

ABDOMINAL DISTENSION; ABDOMINAL INFECTION; ABDOMINAL PAIN; ACREMONIUM; ACREMONIUM STRICTUM; ACUTE GRANULOCYTIC LEUKEMIA; ALTERNARIA; ANTIFUNGAL RESISTANCE; ASPERGILLUS; AUREOBASIDIUM; BASIDIOBOLOMYCOSIS; BASIDIOBOLUS; BASIDIOBOLUS HAPTOSPORUS; BASIDIOBOLUS MERISTOSPORUS; BASIDIOBOLUS RANARUM; BIPOLARIS; BLASTOMYCES DERMATITIDIS; BLASTOMYCOSIS; BLOODY DIARRHEA; CHILD; CHILDHOOD DISEASE; CHILDHOOD MORTALITY; CLADOPHIALOPHORA; CLADOPHIALOPHORA CARRIONII; CLADOSPORIOSIS; CLADOSPORIUM; CRYPTOCOCCAL MENINGITIS; CRYPTOCOCCOSIS; CRYPTOCOCCUS; CRYPTOCOCCUS ALBIDUS; CRYPTOCOCCUS GATTII; CRYPTOCOCCUS LAURENTII; CRYPTOCOCCUS NEOFORMANS; CURVULARIA; DEBRIDEMENT; DIPODASCUS CAPITATUS; ENTOMOPHTHORALES; EOSINOPHILIA; EXOPHIALA; EXOPHIALA JEANSELMEI; EXSEROHILUM; FATIGUE; FEVER; FONSECAEA PEDROSOI; FUNGUS CULTURE; FUSARIOSIS; FUSARIUM; FUSARIUM MONILIFORME; FUSARIUM OXYSPORUM; FUSARIUM SOLANII; GASTROINTESTINAL INFECTION; GASTROINTESTINAL SURGERY; GRANULOMATOUS INFLAMMATION; HISTOPATHOLOGY; HISTOPLASMA; HISTOPLASMA CAPSULATUM; HISTOPLASMOSIS; HUMAN; HYALOHYPHOMYCOSIS; HYPHOMYCETES; IMMUNOCOMPETENCE; IMMUNOCOMPROMISED PATIENT; LICHTHEIMIA CORYMBIFERA; LUNG INFECTION; MASTOIDITIS; MENINGOENCEPHALITIS; MENINX; MUCORMYCOSIS; MYCOSIS; OSTEOMYELITIS; PARACOCCIDIOIDES BRASILIENSIS; PENICILLIOSIS; PENICILLIUM; PENICILLIUM MARNEFFEI; PHAEOANNELLOMYCES; PHAEOHYPHOMYCOSIS; PHIALOPHORA VERRUCOSA; PSEUDALLESCHERIASIS; PSEUDOZYMA APHIDIS; RARE DISEASE; REVIEW; RHINITIS; RHINOCLADIELLA BASITONA; RHIZOPUS ORYZAE; SAKSENAEA VASIFORMIS; SCEDOSPORIUM; SCEDOSPORIUM PROLIFICANS; SCOPULARIOPSIS; SCOPULARIOPSIS BREVICAULIS; SETOSPHAERIA ROSTRATA; SINUSITIS; SKIN INFECTION; SOFT TISSUE INFECTION; SOUTH AMERICAN BLASTOMYCOSIS; SPOROTHRIX SCHENCKII; TRICHODERMA; TRICHODERMA LONGIBRACHIATUM; TRICHOSPORON; TRICHOSPORON ASAHII; TRICHOSPORONOSIS; TUBERCULOUS OSTEOMYELITIS; VACUUM ASSISTED CLOSURE; VOMITING; WANGIELLA;

EID: 84899492873     PISSN: 19363761     EISSN: 1936377X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s12281-014-0175-0     Document Type: Review

References (108)

1. Jain A, Jain S, Rawat S. Emerging fungal infections among children: a review on its clinical manifestations, diagnosis, and prevention. J Pharm Bioallied Sci. 2010;2:314-20.
2. Roden MM, Zaoutis TE, Buchanan WL, et al. Epidemiology and outcome of zygomycosis: a review of 929 reported cases. Clin Infect Dis. 2005;41:634-53. (Pubitemid 41170352)
3. Kwon-Chung KJ. Taxonomy of fungi causing mucormycosis and entomophthoramycosis (zygomycosis) and nomenclature of the disease: molecular mycologic perspectives. Clin Infect Dis. 2012;54:8-15.
4. Sujatha S, Sheeladevi C, Khyriem AB, et al. Subcutaneous zygomycosis caused by Basidiobolus ranarum - a case report. Indian J Med Microbiol. 2003;21:205-6. (Pubitemid 38008738)
5. Pandit V, Rhee P, Aziz H, et al. Perforated appendicitis with gastroinestinal basidiobolomycosis: A rare finding. Surg Infect. (Larchmt) 2013 [Epub ahead of print].
6. Prabhu RM, Patel R. Mucormycosis and Entomophthoramycosis: a review of the clinical manifestations, diagnosis and treatment. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2004;10:31-47. (Pubitemid 38379950)
7. Gugnani HC. A review of zygomycosis due to Basidiobolus ranarum. Eur J Epidemiol. 1999;15:923-9. (Pubitemid 30041090)
8. •• Vikram HR, Smilack JD, Leighton JA, et al. Emergence of gastrointestinal basidiobolomycosis in the United States, with a review of worldwide cases. Clin Infect Dis. 2012;54:1685-91. This is a recently published large retrospective observational cohort study of 44 patients with gastrointestinal basidiobolomycosis, evaluating this emerging invasive fungal infection in desert regions of the US Southwest region.
9. Arjmand R, Karimi A, Sanaei Dashti A, et al. A child with intestinal basidiobolomycosis. Iran J Med Sci. 2012;37:134-6.
10. Girish M, Arora A, Bhalla L, et al. Elephantine but not elephantiasis: subcutaneous zygomycosis. Indian J Pediatr. 2011;78:1142-4.
11. Anand M, Deshmukh SD, Pande DP, et al. Subcutaneous zygomycosis due to Basidiobolus ranarum: a case report from Maharastra, India. J Trop Med. 2010;2010:950390.
12. Al-Shanafey S, AlRobean F, Bin Hussain I. Surgical management of gastrointestinal basidiobolomycosis in pediatric patients. J Pediatr Surg. 2012;47:949-51.
13. El-Shabrawi MH, Kamal NM. Gastrointestinal basidiobolomycosis in children: an overlooked emerging infection? J Med Mirobiol. 2011;60:871-80.
14. Arya AA, Naik C, Deshmukh S, et al. Mastoid infection caused by entomophthorales: a rare fungal disease. J Laryngol Otol. 2011;125:630-2.
15. Blazquez D, Ruiz-Contreras J, Fernandez-Cooke E, et al. Lichtheimia corymbifera subcutaneous infection successfully treated with amphotericin B, early debridement, and vacuum-assisted closure. J Pediatr Surg. 2010;45:13-5.
16. Gurevich M, Levi I, Steinberg R, et al. Mucormycosis in a liver allograft: salvage re transplantation and targeted immunosuppressive management. Transpl Infect Dis. 2012;14:97-101.
17. Velepic M, Manestar D, Ahel VV, et al. Mucormycosis of the nasal ala in a leukemic (M7 AML) child. Is surgery of the nasal defect indicated? Coll Anthropol. 2012;36:535-7.
18. Ting JY, Chan SY, Lung DC, et al. Intra-abdominal Rhizopus microsporus infection successfully treated by combined aggressive surgical, antifungal, and iron chelating therapy. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol. 2010;32:238-40.
19. Wildenbeest JG, Oomen MW, Bruggemann RJ, et al. Rhizopus oryzae skin infection treated with posaconazole in a boy with chronic granulomatous disease. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2010;29:578.
20. •• Matthias KR, Nix DE, Peloquin CA, et al. Poor absorption of high-dose posaconazole in pediatric bone marrow transplant patients. Ann Pharmacother. 2012;46(9):22. This study evaluates the safety of high-dose posaconazole in two pediatric patients undergoing bone marrow transplantation (BMT), highlighting concerns regarding posaconazole absorption in this patients' group.
21. Dalgic B, Bukulmez A, Sari S. Pyogenic liver abscess and peritonitis due to Rhizopus oryzae in a child with Papillon-Lefevre syndrome. Eur J Pediatr. 2011;170:803-5.
22. Adderson EE, Rowland C, McGregor LM, et al. Zygomycosis originating from an odontogenic infection in a pediatric oncology patient. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 2010;67:92-4.
23. Taj-Aldeen SJ, Falamarzi A, AlMuzrkchi A, et al. Rare pediatric rhino-orbital infection caused by Saksenaea vasiformis. Infection. 2012;40:703-7.
24. Weng TF, Ho MW, Lin HC, et al. Successful treatment of disseminated mixed invasive fungal infection after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation for severe aplastic anemia. Pediatr Transplant. 2012;16:35-8.
25. Elguazzar S, Benouachane T, Nasri A, et al. Iliofemoral cutaneous mucormycosiswith endopelvic extension in an immunocompetent child. Arch Pediatr. 2012;20:754-7.
26. Chakravarti A, Bhargava R, Bhattacharya S. Cutaneous mucormycosis of nose and facial region in children: a case series. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol. 2013;77:869-72.
27. Razouk S, Sebbani S, Agoumi A, et al. The subcutaneous mucormycosis due to Lichtheimia corymbifera: a case report in an immunocompetent child. J Mycol Med. 2012;22:185-8.
28. Kleinotiene G, Posiunas G, Raistenskis J, et al. Liposomal amphotericin B and surgery as successful therapy for pulmonary Lichtheimia corymbifera zygomycosis in a pediatric patient with acute promyelocytic leukemia on antifungal prophylaxis with posaconazole. Med Oncol. 2013;30:433.
29. Irga N, Kosiak W, Jaworski R, et al. Hyperthyroidism secondary to disseminated mucormycosis in a child with acute lymphoblastic leukemia: case report and a review of published reports. Mycopathologia. 2013;175:123-7.
30. Rawal YB, Kalmar JR. Intraoral phaeohyphomycosis. Head Neck Pathol. 2012;6(4):481-5.
31. Fathy H, Abdel-Razek MM, Abdelgaber S, et al. Subcutaneous phaeohyphomycosis in immunocompetent child caused by Exophiala jeanselmei. Int J Dermatol. 2012;51:1267-70.
32. Mudholkar VG, Acharya AS, Ramteke RV. Disseminated cutaneous phaeohyphomycosis in immunocompetent child. Pediatr Dermatol. 2011;28:30-1.
33. Madhugiri VS, Bhagavatula ID, Mahadevan A, et al. An unusual infection, an unusual outcome-Fonsecaea pedrosoi cerebral granuloma. J Neurosurg. 2011;8:229-32.
34. Gao LJ, Yu J, Wang DL, et al. Recalcitrant primary subcutaneous phaeohyphomycosis due to Phialophora verrucosa. Mycopathologia. 2013;175:165-70.
35. Sosa EE, Cohen PR, Tschen JA. Cladosporium scalp infection. Skinmed. 2012;10:393-4.
36. Cai Q, Lv GX, Jiang YQ, et al. The first case of phaeohyphomycosis caused by Rhinocladiella basitona in an immunocompetent child in China. Mycopathologia. 2013;176:101-5.
37. • Chowdhary A, Randhawa HS, Singh V, et al. Bipolaris hawaiiensis as etiologic agent of allergic bronchopulmonary mycosis: first case in a paediatric patient. Med Mycol. 2011;49:760-5. Although the most common etiologic pathogen associated with allergic bronchopulmonary mycosis (ABPM) is Aspergillus fumigatus, this report describes the first case of Bipolaris hawaiiensis causing ABPM in a paediatric patient.
38. Juhas E, Reyes-Mugica M, Michaels MG, et al. Exserohilum infection in an immunocompromised neonate. Pediatr Dermatol. 2013;6:232-3.
39. Pradeepkumar NS, Joseph NM. Chromoblastomycosis caused by Cladophialophora carrionii in a child from India. J Infect Dev Ctries. 2011;5:556-60.
40. Matlani M, Kaur R. Shweta. A case of Scedosporium prolificans osteomyelitis in an immunocompetent child, misdiagnosed as tubercular osteomyelitis. Indian J Dermatol. 2013;58:80-1.
41. Song MJ, Lee JH, Lee NY. Fatal Scedosporium prolificans infection in a paediatric patient with acute lymphoblastic leukaemia. Mycoses. 2011;54:81-3.
42. Kendirli T, Ciftci E, Ekim M, et al. Acremonium spp. peritonitis in an infant. Mycoses. 2008;51:455-7.
43. Yan X, Yu C, Shi Z, et al. Nasal cutaneous infection in a healthy boy caused by Fusarium moniliforme. Pediatr Dermatol. 2013;30:43-5.
44. Morel LN, Cid PM, De Celada RM, et al. Disseminated fusariosis in a pediatric population. Pediatr Dermatol. 2013;30:255-6.
45. Silva GM, Silveira AR, Betania CA, et al. Disseminated fusariosis secondary to neuroblastoma with fatal outcome. Mycopathologia. 2013;176:233-6.
46. Gluck O, Segal N, Yariv F, et al. Pediatric invasive sinonasal Scopulariopsis brevicaulis-a case report and literature review. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol. 2011;75:891-3.
47. Petit A, Levine E, Epaud R, et al. Scopulariopsis brevicaulis abscess in a child treated for myeloblastic leukaemia. Lancet Infect Dis. 2011;11:416.
48. Roehm CE, Salazar JC, Hagstrom N, et al. Phoma and Acremonium invasive fungal rhinosinusitis in congenital acute lymphocytic leukemia and literature review. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol. 2012;76:1387-91.
49. •• Lee PP, Chan KW, Lee TL, et al. Penicilliosis in children without HIV infection - are they immunodeficient? Clin Infect Dis. 2012;54:8-19. Interesting contemporary data regarding pediatric patients with penicilliosis without HIV infection. Penicilliosis should be regarded as an indicator for underlying immunodeficiency in HIV-negative individuals.
50. Sudjaritruk T, Sirisanthana T, Sirisanthana V. Immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome from Penicillium marneffei in an HIV-infected child: a case report and review of literature. BMC Infect Dis. 2012;12:28.
51. Hitoto H, Pihet M, Weil B, et al. Acremonium strictum fungaemia in a paediatric immunocompromised patient: diagnosis and treatment difficulties. Mycopathologia. 2010;170:161-4.
52. Santillan Salas CF, Joshi AY, Dhiman N, et al. Fatal post-operative Trichoderma longibrachiatum mediastinitis and peritonitis in a paediatric patient with complex congenital cardiac disease on peritoneal dialysis. J Med Microbiol. 2013;60:1869-71.
53. Yuanjie Z, Jianghan C, Nan X, et al. Cryptococcal meningitis in immunocompetent children. Mycoses. 2012;55:168-71.
54. Debourgogne A, Hagen F, Elenga N, et al. Successful treatment of Cryptococcus gattii neurocryptococcosis in a 5-year-old immunocompetent child from the French Guiana Amazon region. Rev Iberoam Micol. 2012;29:210-3.
55. Molina-Leyva A, Ruiz-Carrascosa JC, Leyva-Garcia A, et al. Cutaneous Cryptococcus laurentii infection in an immunocompetent child. Int J Infect Dis. 2013;17:1232-3.
56. Friedman D, Kongthavonsakul K, Oberdorfer P. Disseminated cryptococcosis in an HIV-positive boy. BMJ Case Rep. 2012. doi:10.1136/bcr-2012-007036.
57. Heath JL, Yin DE, Wechsler DS, et al. Successful treatment of disseminated cryptococcal infection in a pediatric acute lymphoblastic leukemia patient during induction. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol. 2012;34:161-3.
58. Nagotkar L, Shanbag P, Mauskar A, et al. Fulminant intracranial hypertension due to cryptococcal meningitis in a child with nephrotic syndrome. Indian J Crit Care Med. 2011;15:176-8.
59. Natukunda E, Musiime V, Ssali F, et al. A case of cryptococcal lymphadenitis in an HIV-infected child. AIDS Res Hum Retrovir. 2011;27:373-6.
60. Pinto Junior VL, Pone MV, Pone SM, et al. Cryptococcus gattii molecular type VGII as agent of meningitis in a healthy child in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: report of an autochthonous case. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop. 2010;43:746-8.
61. Prakash A, Wankhede S, Singh PK, et al. First neonatal case of fungaemia due to Pseudozyma aphidis and a global literature review. Mycoses. 2013. doi:10.1111/myc.12098.
62. Dua V, Yadav SP, Oberoi J, et al. Successful treatment of Trichosporon asahii infection with voriconazole after bone marrow transplant. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol. 2013;35:237-8.
63. Ozkaya-Parlakay A, Cengiz AB, Karadag-Oncel E, et al. Geotrichum capitatum septicemia in a hematological malignancy patient with positive galactomannan antigen: case report and review of the literature. Turk J Pediatr. 2012;54:674-8.
64. Ozkaya-Parlakay A, Karadag-Oncel E, Cengiz AB, et al. Trichosporon asahii sepsis in a patient with pediatric malignancy. J Microbiol Immunol Infect. 2013. doi:10.1016/j.jmii.2013.01.003.
65. Zahn M, Hesson M, Morton R, et al. Granulomatous pleuritis caused by histoplasmosis in a healthy child. Pediatr Pulmonol. 2011;46:729-31.
66. Pereira GH, Santos AQ, Park M, et al. Bone marrow involvement in a patient with paracoccidioidomycosis: a rare presentation of juvenile form. Mycopathologia. 2010;170:259-61.
67. Schuster JE, Wushensky CA, Di Pentima MC. Chronic primary central nervous system histoplasmosis in a healthy child with intermittent neurological manifestations. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2013;32:794-6.
68. Threlkeld ZD, Broughton R, Khan GQ, et al. Isolated Histoplasma capsulatum meningoencephalitis in an immunocompetent child. J Child Neurol. 2013;27:532-5.
69. Dhawan J, Verma P, Sharma A, et al. Disseminated cutaneous histoplasmosis in an immunocompetent child, relapsed with itraconazole, successfully treated with voriconazole. Pediatr Dermatol. 2012;27:549-51.
70. • Brick KE, Drolet BA, Lyon VB, et al. Cutaneous and disseminated blastomycosis: a pediatric case series. Pediatr Dermatol. 2013;30:23-8. A recently published retrospective analysis of 17 pediatric cases of blastomycosis diagnosed from 1999 to 2009.
71. Abrams E, Dean HJ, Bunge MK, et al. Blastomycosis of the central nervous system in a child: a rare cause of hypopituitarism. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab. 2011;24:775-7.
72. Motswaledi HM, Monyemangene FM, Maloba BR, et al. Blastomycosis: a case report and review of the literature. Int J Dermatol. 2012;51:1090-3.
73. Freitas DF, Lima IA, Curi CL, et al. Acute dacryocystitis: another clinical manifestation of sporotrichosis. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 2013;108:909-13.
74. •• Song Y, Yao L, Zhong SX, et al. Infant sporotrichosis in northeast China: a report of 15 cases. Int J Dermatol. 2011;50:522-9. This is one of the largest case series of infant sporotrichosis.
75. • Saadah OI, Farouq MF, Daajani NA, et al. Gastrointestinal basidiobolomycosis in a child; an unusual fungal infection mimicking fistulising Crohn's disease. J Crohn's Colitis. 2012;6:368-72. This case report is of high clinical interest because it represents the difficulty in diagnosing gastrointestinal basidiobolomycosis in children, as this condition may mimic several other pathologic conditions, like Crohn's colitis.
76. Yousef OM, Smilack JD, Kerr DM, et al. Gastrointestinal basidiobolomycosis. Morphologic findings in a cluster of six cases. Am J Clin Pathol. 1999;112:610-6. (Pubitemid 30214750)
77. Hussein MR, Musalam AO, Assiry MH, et al. Histological and ultrastructural features of gastrointestinal basidiobolomycosis. Mycol Res. 2007;111:926-30. (Pubitemid 47376809)
78. Azie N, Neofytos D, Pfaller M, et al. The PATH (Prospective Antifungal Therapy) Alliance(R) registry and invasive fungal infections: update 2012. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 2012;73:293-300.
79. Roilides E, Zaoutis TE, Katragkou A, et al. Zygomycosis in neonates: an uncommon but life-threatening infection. Am J Perinatol. 2009;26:565-73.
80. Roilides E, Zaoutis TE, Walsh TJ. Invasive zygomycosis in neonates and children. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2009;15:50-4.
81. •• Dabritz J, Attarbaschi A, Tintelnot K, et al. Mucormycosis in paediatric patients: demographics, risk factors and outcome of 12 contemporary cases. Mycoses. 2012;54:785-8. This is a recently published case series of pediatric mucormycosis from Germany and Austria during 2004-2008.
82. Almaslamani M, Taj-Aldeen SJ, Garcia-Hermoso D, et al. An increasing trend of cutaneous zygomycosis caused by Mycocladus corymbifer (formerly Absidia corymbifera): report of two cases and review of primary cutaneous Mycocladus infections. Med Mycol. 2009;47:532-8.
83. Spellberg B, Walsh TJ, Kontoyiannis DP, et al. Recent advances in the management of mucormycosis: from bench to bedside. Clin Infect Dis. 2009;48:1743-51.
84. Garbino J, Uckay I, Amini K, et al. Absidia posttraumatic infection: successful treatment with posaconazole. J Infect. 2005;51: 135-8.
85. Rickerts V, Atta J, Herrmann S, et al. Successful treatment of disseminated mucormycosis with a combination of liposomal amphotericin B and posaconazole in a patient with acute myeloid leukaemia. Mycoses. 2006;49:27-30. (Pubitemid 44370099)
86. •• Vehreschild JJ, Birtel A, Vehreschild MJ, et al. Mucormycosis treated with posaconazole: review of 96 case reports. Crit Rev Microbiol. 2013;39:310-24. This review article focuses on reports of patients with mucormycosis treated with posaconazole either as combination or salvage therapy.
87. Tarani L, Costantino F, Notheis G, et al. Long-term posaconazole treatment and follow-up of rhino-orbital-cerebral mucormycosis in a diabetic girl. Pediatr Diabetes. 2009;10:289-93.
88. Baradkar VP, Kumar S. Cutaneous zygomycosis due to Saksenaea vasiformis in an immunocompetent host. Indian J Dermatol. 2009;54:382-4.
89. Solano T, Atkins B, Tambosis E, et al. Disseminated mucormycosis due to Saksenaea vasiformis in an immunocompetent adult. Clin Infect Dis. 2000;30:942-3. (Pubitemid 32250338)
90. Trotter DJ, Gonis G, Cottrill E, et al. Disseminated Saksenaea vasiformis in an immunocompetent host. Med J Aust. 2008;189:519-20.
91. Bearer EA, Nelson PR, Chowers MY, et al. Cutaneous zygomycosis caused by Saksenaea vasiformis in a diabetic patient. J Clin Microbiol. 1994;32:1823-4. (Pubitemid 24189585)
92. Gonis G, Starr M. Fatal rhinoorbital mucormycosis caused by Saksenaea vasiformis in an immunocompromised child. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1997;16:714-6. (Pubitemid 27300713)
93. Kompoti M, Michalia M, Kallitsi G, et al. Fatal cutaneous Saksenaea vasiformis infection in a critically ill trauma patient. Mycoses. 2011;54:599-601.
94. Revankar SG. Phaeohyphomycosis. Infect Dis Clin N Am. 2006;20:609-20. (Pubitemid 44389927)
95. Revankar SG, Patterson JE, Sutton DA, et al. Disseminated phaeohyphomycosis: review of an emerging mycosis. Clin Infect Dis. 2002;34:467-76. (Pubitemid 34121028)
96. Joseph NM, Kumar MA, Stephen S, et al. Keratomycosis caused by Exserohilum rostratum. Indian J Pathol Microbiol. 2012;55:248-9.
97. Revankar SG. Dematiaceous fungi. Mycoses. 2007;50:91-101.
98. •• Tortorano AM RM, et al. Guidelines on diagnosis and management of hyalohyphomycosis: Fusarium spp, Scedosporium spp, and others. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2013 (in press). Most recently updated European guidelines on diagnosis and management of various forms of hyalohyphomycosis, such as those due to Fusarium spp. and Scedosporium spp.
99. Brandt ME, Warnock DW. Epidemiology, clinical manifestations, and therapy of infections caused by dematiaceous fungi. J Chemother. 2003;15:36-47. (Pubitemid 38021614)
100. Walsh TJ, Groll A, Hiemenz J, et al. Infections due to emerging and uncommon medically important fungal pathogens. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2004;10:48-66. (Pubitemid 38379951)
101. Cuenca-Estrella M, Gomez-Lopez A, Mellado E, et al. Scopulariopsis brevicaulis, a fungal pathogen resistant to broad-spectrum antifungal agents. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2003;47:2339-41. (Pubitemid 36753597)
102. Stein LL, Adams EG, Holcomb KZ. Inflammatory tinea capitis mimicking dissecting cellulitis in a postpubertal male: a case report and review of the literature. Mycoses. 2013;56:596.
103. Ruan SY, Chien JY, Hsueh PR. Invasive trichosporonosis caused by Trichosporon asahi i and other unusual Trichosporon species at a medical center in Taiwan. Clin Infect Dis. 2009;49:11-7.
104. •• Arendrup MC BT, Boekhout T, Akova M, et al. Joint ESCMID/ECMM guideline for the diagnosis and management of rare invasive yeast infections. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2013. doi:10.1111/1469-0691.12360. Excellent document of updated guidelines for the diagnosis and management of emerging invasive yeast infections.
105. Klein BS, Tebbets B. Dimorphism and virulence in fungi. Curr Opin Microbiol. 2007;10:314-9. (Pubitemid 47404945)
106. de Melo Braga G, Hessel G, Pereira RM. Hepatic involvement in pediatric patients with paracoccidioidomycosis: a clinical and laboratory study. Mycopathologia. 2013. doi:10.1111/his.12244.
107. Chu JH, Feudtner C, Heydon K, et al. Hospitalizations for endemic mycoses: a population-based national study. Clin Infect Dis. 2006;42:822-5. (Pubitemid 43363939)
108. Wheat LJ, Freifeld AG, Kleiman MB, et al. Clinical practice guidelines for the management of patients with histoplasmosis: 2007 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;45:807-25. (Pubitemid 47580372)