The aesthetic grounding of modern medicine

Bulletin of the History of Medicine

Volumn 88, Issue 1, 2014, Pages 1-47

  Warner, John Harley ^a  

^a YALE UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

Aesthetics; Harvey cushing; Luke Fildes's the doctor; Medical book collecting; Medical history; Medical libraries; Medical photography; National health insurance; Whitaker and Baxter; William Osler

Indexed keywords

EID: 84899138633     PISSN: 00075140     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/bhm.2014.0010     Document Type: Article

References (220)

1. Gerald L. Geison, "'Divided We Stand': Physiologists and Clinicians in the American Context," in The Therapeutic Revolution: Essays in the Social History of American Medicine, ed. Morris J. Vogel and Charles E. Rosenberg (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1979), 67-90
2. S. E. D. Shortt, "Physicians, Science, and Status: Issues in the Professionalization of Anglo-American Medicine in the Nineteenth Century," Med. Hist. 27 (1983): 51-68
3. John Harley Warner, "Science in Medicine," Osiris ser. 2, 1 (1985): 37-58
4. John Harley Warner, "Grand Narrative and Its Discontents: Medical History and the Social Transformation of American Medicine," J. Health Polit. Policy Law 29 (2004): 757-80.
5. D. W. Cathell, The Physician Himself and What He Should Add to His Scientifc Acquirements in Order to Secure Success (Baltimore: Cushings and Bailey, 1885), 11.
6. Sinclair Lewis, Arrowsmith (1924; repr., New York: Signet Classic, 1961), 84-85.
7. This is the focus of a chapter in a book in process that develops themes I begin to explore in this article.
8. On public image, see especially Bert Hansen, Picturing Medical Progress from Pasteur to Polio: A History of Mass Media Images and Popular Attitudes in America (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 2009).
9. I draw heavily in this section on John Harley Warner and James M. Edmonson, Dissection: Photographs of a Rite of Passage in American Medicine, 1880-1930 (New York: Blast Books, 2009)
10. John Harley Warner and Lawrence J. Rizzolo, "Anatomical Instruction and Training for Professionalism from the 19th to the 21st Centuries," Clin. Anat. 19 (2006): 403-14
11. James S. Terry, "Dissecting Room Portraits: Decoding an Underground Genre," Hist. Photography 7 (1983): 96-98.
12. Daniel M. Fox and Christopher Lawrence, Photographing Medicine: Images and Power in Britain and America since 1840 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1988)
13. Daniel M. Fox and James Terry, "Photography and the Self Image of American Physicians, 1880-1920," Bull. Hist. Med. 52 (1978): 435-57
14. Janet Golden and Charles E. Rosenberg, Pictures of Health: A Photographic History of Health Care in Philadelphia, 1860-1945 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1991).
15. The best starting point for human anatomical dissection in nineteenth-century America is Michael Sappol, A Traffc of Dead Bodies: Anatomy and Embodied Social Identity in Nineteenth-Century America (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2002)
16. Helen MacDonald, Human Remains: Dissection and Its Histories (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2006)
17. Ruth Richardson, Death, Dissection and the Destitute, 2nd ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000).
18. See, for example, photographs of Chris Baker, janitor at the Medical College of Virginia in Richmond, in Warner and Edmonson, Dissection (n. 6), 63+69+139
19. On one such figure at the Medical College of Georgia in Augusta, see Tanya Telfair Sharpe, "Grandison Harris: The Medical College of Georgia's Resurrection Man," in Bones in the Basement: Portmortem Racism in Nineteenth-Century Medical Training, ed. Robert L. Blakely and Judith M. Harrington (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1997), 206-24.
20. Warner and Edmonson, Dissection (n. 6), 12
21. William Keiller, "The Craze for Photography in Medical Illustration," New York Med. J. 59 (1894): 788-89, quotation on 788.
22. For examples, see Warner and Edmonson, Dissection (n. 6), 11+15+20+97+100.
23. Helpful in understanding the longer trajectory of links between the body of Christ and the body of the dissected is Mitchell B. Merback, The Thief, the Cross and the Wheel: Pain and the Spectacle of Punishment in Medieval and Renaissance Europe (London: Reaktion Books, 1999)
24. Among the best starting points on early modern anatomical dissection are Andrea Carlino, Books of the Body: Anatomical Ritual and Renaissance Learning (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999)
25. Cynthia Klestinec, Theaters of Anatomy: Students, Teachers, and Traditions of Dissection in Renaissance Venice (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2011)
26. Katharine Park, Secrets of Women: Gender, Generation, and the Origins of Human Dissection (New York: Zone Books, 2006)
27. Jonathan Sawday, The Body Emblazoned: Dissection and the Human Body in Renaissance Culture (London: Routledge, 1995).
28. Coy C. Carpenter, The Story of Medicine at Wake Forest University (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1970), 9.
29. Photographs reproduced in Warner and Edmonson, Dissection (n. 6), 101+100+24+106-7+121+26; the inscription "He lived for himself but died for us" appears on a dissecting table at an unidentifed medical school (probably in Kentucky) in a 1906-7 photograph in the author's possession.
30. Lorraine Daston and Peter Galison, Objectivity (New York: Zone Books, 2007).
31. Quoted in Lucie Robertson Bridgforth, Medical Education in Mississippi: A History of the Medical School (Jackson: University of Mississippi Alumni Association, 1984), 62.
32. On dark humor in these photographs, see Warner and Edmonson, Dissection (n. 6), 140-61.
33. Peter Hamilton and Roger Hargreaves, The Beautiful and the Damned: The Creation of Identity in Nineteenth Century Photography (London: National Portrait Gallery, 2001)
34. Ludmilla Jordanova, Defning Features: Scientifc and Medical Portraits, 1660-2000 (London: National Portrait Gallery, 2000).
35. Jay Ruby, Secure the Shadow: Death and Photography in America (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1995), esp. 75+97
36. Stanley Burns, Sleeping Beauty: Memorial Photography in America (Altadena, Calif.: Twelvetrees Press, 1990).
37. C. A. Hamann, "The Teaching of Anatomy in Medical Schools," Bull. Amer. Acad. Med. 5 (1900-1902), 511-21, quotation on 511.
38. T. J. Jackson Lears, No Place of Grace: Antimodernism and the Transformation of American Culture, 1880-1920 (New York: Pantheon Books, 1981)
39. John Pettegrew, Brutes in Suits: Male Sensibility in America, 1890-1920 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007)
40. Joshua Landy and Michael Saler, eds., The Re-enchantment of the World: Secular Magic in a Rational Age (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2009).
41. Thomas Dwight, "Our Contribution to Civilization and to Science," Sci. n.s. 3 (1896): 75-77, quotation on 75.
42. Jacob Frey, "The Story of Emily Brown," in Reminiscences of Baltimore (Baltimore: Maryland Book Concern, 1893), 301-10
43. Alan F. Guttmacher, "Bootlegging Bodies: A History of Body-Snatching," Bull. Soc. Med. Hist. Chicago 4 (1933): 400-402+401
44. Howard A. Kelly, "The Barred Road to Anatomy," Johns Hopkins Hosp. Bull. 19 (1908): 196-201+198.
45. Franklin P. Mall, "Anatomical Material-Its Collection and Its Preservation at the Johns Hopkins Anatomical Laboratory," Johns Hopkins Hosp. Bull. 16 (1905): 38-42+39.
46. John B. Blake, "Anatomy and the Congress," in Medicine, Science, and Culture: Historical Essays in Honor of Owsei Temkin, ed. Lloyd G. Stevenson and Robert P. Multhauf (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1968), 169-83, on 180.
47. Leslie B. Arey, Northwestern University Medical School, 1859-1959: A Pioneer in Educational Reform (Evanston, Ill.: Northwestern University, 1959), 128.
48. Ludmilla Jordanova, Sexual Visions: Images of Gender in Science and Medicine between the Eighteenth and Twentieth Centuries (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1989), 104
49. Susan Wells, Out of the Dead House: Nineteenth-Century Women Physicians and the Writing of Medicine (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2001), 212-26.
50. Warner and Edmonson, Dissection (n. 6), 104+97.
51. Lears, No Place of Grace (n. 21), 102.
52. Matthew Frye Jacobson, Barbarian Virtues: The United States Encounters Foreign Peoples at Home and Abroad, 1876-1917 (New York: Hill and Wang, 2000), 1
53. David E. Shi, Facing Facts: Realism in American Thought and Culture, 1850-1920 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 212-22.
54. Gladys-Marie Fry, Night Riders in Black Folk History (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1975), 170-211
55. Harriet A. Washington, Medical Apartheid: The Dark History of Medical Experimentation on Black Americans from Colonial Times to the Present (New York: Doubleday, 2006), 115-42.
56. Kidada E. Williams, They Left Great Marks on Me: African American Testimonies of Racial Violence from Emancipation to World War I (New York: New York University Press, 2012), 86.
57. Franny Nudelman, John Brown's Body: Slavery, Violence, and the Culture of War (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004), 41.
58. "Graveyard Ghouls Arrested with a Cargo of Corpses," Philadelphia Press, December 5, 1882
59. "The Ghouls Denounced," Philadelphia Press, December 8, 1882.
60. "More Ghouls Caught," Philadelphia Press, December 6, 1882
61. Alan C. Braddock, "'Jeff College Boys': Thomas Eakins, Dr. Forbes, and Anatomical Fraternity in Post bellum Philadelphia," Amer. Quart. 57 (2005): 355-83
62. Peter Stallybrass and Allon White, The Politics and Poetics of Transgression (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1986).
63. P. Preston Reynolds, "Dr Louis T. Wright and the NAACP: Pioneers in Hospital Racial Integration," Amer. J. Public Health 90 (2000): 883-92+884-85.
64. Dora Apel and Shawn Michelle Smith, Lynching Photographs (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007)
65. James Allen, Hilton Als, John Lewis, and Leon F. Litwack, Without Sanctuary: Lynching Photography in America (Santa Fe, N.Mex.: Twin Palms, 2000)
66. Philip Dray, At the Hands of Persons Unknown: The Lynching of Black America (New York: Random House, 2002)
67. Amy Louise Wood, Lynching and Spectacle: Witnessing Racial Violence in America, 1890-1940 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2008), 71-111.
68. Warner and Edmonson, Dissection (n. 6), 25+200
69. Allen et al., Without Sanctuary (n. 37), 178-80 and plates 37 and 38.
70. The Howler, vol. 24 (Wake Forest, N.C.: Wake Forest College, 1926), 254.
71. On the circulation of these images, see Warner and Edmonson, Dissection (n. 6), 109-25.
72. I draw here on Frank Huisman and John Harley Warner, "Medical Histories," in Locating Medical History: The Stories and Their Meanings, ed. Frank Huisman and John Harley Warner (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004), 1-30
73. John Harley Warner, "The Humanising Power of Medical History: Responses to Biomedicine in the 20th-Century United States," Med. Human. 37 (2011): 91-96.
74. Michael Bliss, William Osler: A Life in Medicine (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999)
75. Gert H. Brieger, "Fielding H. Garrison: The Man and His Books," Trans. Stud. Coll. Physicians Philadelphia. 5, 3 (1981): 1-21
76. Leona Baumgartner, "Harvey Cushing as Book Collector and Litterateur," Bull. Hist. Med. 8 (1940): 1055-66, 1056.
77. Alan M. Chesney, "Two Papers by John Shaw Billings on Medical Education, with a Foreword," Bull. Inst. Hist. Med. 6 (1938): 285-359, quotation on 343.
78. Fielding H. Garrison, An Introduction to the History of Medicine, 3rd ed. (Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, 1924), 866.
79. F. H. Garrison to Burton Chance, 1928, quoted in Brieger, "Fielding H. Garrison" (n. 42), on 15
80. F. H. Garrison, "Developmental Possibilities in Medical History as a Branch of the Medical Curriculum," Bull. New York Acad. Med. 5 (1929): 741-56, quotation on 741
81. Fielding H. Garrison, An Introduction to the History of Medicine (Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, 1913), 12.
82. John Harley Warner, Against the Spirit of System: The French Impulse in Nineteenth-Century American Medicine (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1998).
83. William Osler, "Books and Men," Boston Med. Surg. J. 144 (1901): 60-61, quotations on 60, 61.
84. John Ruhräh, "Osler's Infuence on Medical Libraries in the United States," Ann. Med. Hist. 2 (1919): 170-83, quotation on 182
85. On Osler and libraries, see Thomas E. Keys, "Sir William Osler and the Medical Library," Bull. Med. Libr. Assoc. 49 (1961): 24-41+127-48.
86. Logan Clendening, "The Lure of Old Medical Books" (unpublished address to the Academy of Medicine of Cleveland, 1933)
87. G. S. T. Cavanagh, "The Clendening Collection," Bull. Med. Libr. Assoc. 48 (1960): 190-94, quotation on 192.
88. Harvey Cushing, "'Apologia' from an Unfnished Bibliography of Vesalius," Bull. Hist. Med. 8 (1940): 381-91, quotation on 384.
89. Elmer Belt, quoted in Max Marmor, "The Elmer Belt Library of Vinciana," Book Collector 38 (1989): 321-42, quotation on 322.
90. William Osler, The Old Humanities and the New Science, with an introduction by Harvey Cushing (Boston: Houghton Miffin, 1920), 49.
91. On the British context of his remarks, see Anna-K. Mayer, "'A Combative Sense of Duty': Englishness and the Scientists," in Regenerating England: Science, Medicine and Culture in Inter-war Britain, ed. Christopher Lawrence and Anna-K. Mayer (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2000), 67-106.
92. Osler, Old Humanities (n. 52), 49
93. Auckland Geddes, "Social Reconstruction and the Medical Profession," in Contributions to Medical and Biological Research Dedicated to Sir William Osler (New York: Paul B. Hoeber, 1919), 70-79.
94. Osler, Old Humanities (n. 52), 54.
95. Ibid., 54+55
96. George Sarton, "The New Humanism," Isis 6 (1924): 9-42, quotation on 32 (which extended a paper with the same title, but in French, published in Scientia in 1918).
97. Christopher Lawrence, "Incommunicable Knowledge: Science, Technology and the Clinical Art in Britain 1850-1914," J. Contemp. Hist. 20 (1985): 503-20
98. Lawrence, "Still Incommunicable: Clinical Holists and Medical Knowledge in Interwar Britain," in Greater Than the Parts: Holism in Biomedicine, 1920-1950, ed. Christopher Lawrence and George Weisz (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), 94-111.
99. R. T. Gunther to [Harvey Cushing], Oxford, August 21, 1920, inserted in Cushing's copy of the British edition of William Osler, The Old Humanities and the New Science (Oxford: John Murray, 1919), Historical Medical Library, Harvey Cushing/John Hay Whitney Medical Library, Yale University, New Haven, Conn.
100. Charles Rosenberg, "Holism in Twentieth-Century Medicine," in Lawrence and Weisz, Greater Than the Parts (n. 57), 335-55, esp. 343.
101. Anne Harrington, Reenchanted Science: Holism in German Culture from Wilhem II to Hitler (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1996), xv
102. Max Weber, "Science as a Vocation" (1918), in Essays in Sociology, trans. and ed. H. H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills (New York: Oxford University Press, 1946), 129-56, quotation on 155
103. Lawrence and Weisz, eds., Greater Than the Parts (n. 57)
104. John Harley Warner, "The Art of Medicine in an Age of Science: Reductionism, Holism, and the Doctor-Patient Relationship in the United States, 1890-1960," Senri Ethnolog. Res., forthcoming.
105. Harvey Cushing, "Introduction," in Osler, Old Humanities (n. 52), v-xxii.
106. Harvey Cushing, The Doctor and His Books: An Address at the Opening of the Allen Memorial Building of the Cleveland Medical Library Association, November 13, 1926 (Cleveland, Ohio: n.p., [1926]), 22.
107. Michael Bliss, Harvey Cushing: A Life in Surgery (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 403-04.
108. Cushing, Doctor and His Books (n. 62), 4+25.
109. Bliss, Osler (n. 42), 487-88
110. W. W. Francis, "The President's Address at Osler's Shrine," Bull. Med. Libr. Assoc. 26 (1936-1937): 1-8
111. Keys, "Sir William Osler" (n. 48), 146
112. Lloyd G. Stevenson, "Prologue," in Bibliotheca Osleriana: A Catalogue of Books Illustrating the History of Medicine and Science Collected, Arranged, and Annotated by Sir William Osler, Bt. and Bequeathed to McGill University (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1969), ix-xiv
113. William Sydney Thayer, Osler and Other Papers (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1931), 42-50.
114. A longer and chronologically broader roster of collectors and collections inviting exploration might begin with, for example, Logan Clendening, Le Roy Crummer, Howard Dittrick, Howard A. Kelly, William Snow Miller, Charles F. Moon, Lawrence Reynolds, Josiah C. Trent, and Owen Wangensteen. See Gertrude L. Annan, "The Rare Book and History of Medicine Department in the New York Academy of Medicine," Bull. Med. Libr. Assoc. 39 (1951): 6-8
115. William B. Bean, "Logan Clendening and Medical Books," Arch. Internal Med. 116 (1965): 161-63
116. Cavanagh, "Clendening Collection" (n. 49), 190-94
117. Howard Dittrick, "Josiah Charles Trent," Bull. Hist. Med. 23 (1949): 95-100
118. John F. Fulton, "Edward Clark Streeter, 1874-1947," Yale J. Bio. Med. 20 (1947): 203-11
119. John F. Fulton, "Josiah C. Trent, 1914-1948," J. Hist. Med. Allied Sci. 3 (1948): 467-72
120. William S. Middleton, "Doctor William Snow Miller and His Seminar," Bull. Hist. Med. 8 (1940): 1067-72
121. John B. de C. M. Saunders, "The Crummer Room for the History of Medicine at the University of California Medical School, San Francisco," Ann. Med. Hist. 8 (1936): 270
122. Henry Schuman, "The Josiah C. Trent Collection in the History of Medicine," Bull. Med. Libr. Assoc. 46 (1958): 352-66
123. "The Rudolph Matas Medical Library," Bull. Med. Libr. Assoc. 26 (1937-38): 259-61
124. John L. Thornton, Medical Books, Libraries and Collectors: A Study of Bibliography and the Book Trade in Relation to the Medical Sciences (London: Grafton, 1949), esp. 171-90.
125. Harvey Cushing, "The Binding Influence of a Library on a Subdividing Profession," Bull. Johns Hopkins Hosp. 46 (1930): 29-42, quotation on 30.
126. Ibid., 30+41-42.
127. Ibid., 39.
128. Ibid., 38.
129. William Welch, "Inauguration of the Department of the History of Medicine at the Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, October 18, 1929," Bull. Johns Hopkins Hosp. 46 (1930): 91-94, quotation on 92.
130. Abraham Flexner, "Remarks on the Inauguration of Dr. William H. Welch as Professor of the History of Medicine," Bull. Johns Hopkins Hosp. 46 (1930): 95-99, quotation on 96, 97.
131. Harvey Cushing, "Medicine at the Crossroads," JAMA 100 (1933): 1567-75, quotations on 1572, 1571.
132. Ibid., 1573.
133. Harvey Cushing to Edgar H. Wells, May 12, 1926, in John F. Futon, Harvey Cushing: A Biography (Springfeld, Ill.: Charles C Thomas, 1946), 469.
134. Cushing to Klebs, [New Haven, Conn.], October 4, [1934], in The Making of a Library: Extracts from Letters 1934-1941 of Harvey Cushing, Arnold C. Klebs, and John F. Fulton (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University, 1959), 11-12, quotation on 11.
135. Klebs to Fulton, April 1, 1935, in Making of a Library (n. 77), 26-27, quotation on 26
136. J. F. Fulton to W. W. Francis, [New Haven, Conn.], June 1, 1939
137. J. F. Fulton to Henry E. Sigerist, New Haven, Conn., June 1, 1939, both in Henry Ernest Sigerist Papers (MS 788), Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library, New Haven, Conn., box 5, folder 172.
138. Toby A. Appel, "A 'Trinitarian Plan': The Historical Library, Cushing/Whitney Medical Library, Yale University," Watermark 25, no. 4 (2002): 65-69
139. Bliss, Cushing (n. 64), 496-97
140. "Dedication Ceremony of the Yale Medical Library, June 15, 1941," Yale J. Bio. Med. 13 (1940-41): 863-89
141. John F. Fulton, "Harvey Cushing and Arnold Klebs: Their Friendship and Their Libraries," Bull. Hist. Med. 21 (1947): 512-23
142. John F. Fulton, "The Library of a Scholar: Arnold C. Kelbs," Yale Univ. Libr. Gazette 22, no. 2 (1947): 1-6.
143. Cushing to Klebs, [n.d. but after June 21, 1939], in Making of a Library (n. 77), 47-49, quotation on 48
144. Peter Pennoyer and Anne Walker, The Architecture of Grosvenor Atterbury (New York: Norton, 2009), esp. 249-51.
145. Klebs to Cushing, April 1, 1935, in Making of a Library (n. 77), 21-26, quotation on 23.
146. E.g., Klebs to Fulton, March 12, 1940, in Making of a Library (n. 77), 64-65, quotation on 65.
147. Klebs to Cushing, August 30, 1939, in Making of a Library (n. 77), quotation on 50.
148. Klebs to Cushing, April 1, 1935, in Making of a Library (n. 77), 21-26, quotation on 25
149. "The 'swell bibliophile' on the whole is a pretty sterile individual," Klebs told Cushing, "and bibliography after all ought to be only a means to an end, broad embracing thought and all-understanding humanity" (Klebs to Cushing, Les Terrases, Nyon en Suisse, October 14, 1934, in Making of a Library [n. 77], 12-17, on 14).
150. Ibid., 15.
151. Klebs to George Stewart, February 12, 1940, in Making of a Library (n. 77), 55-64, quotation on 57.
152. Cushing, "Binding Infuence" (n. 68), 38.
153. Klebs to Cushing, Les Terrasses, Nyon en Suisse, October 14, 1934, in Making of a Library (n. 77), 12-16, quotation on 14.
154. Klebs to Cushing, April 1, 1935, in Making of a Library (n. 77), 21-26, quotation on 25-26
155. Cushing to Klebs, July 1, 1939, in Making of a Library (n. 77), 47-49, quotation on 47-48.
156. It might have been inspired by the death of the painter's eldest son in 1877, and by some accounts it might also depict Queen Victoria's physician Sir James Clark, sent by her to care for the daughter of a game keeper on her Balmoral estate. See G. Edmund Gifford Jr., "Fildes and 'The Doctor,'" JAMA 244 (1973): 61-63
157. On The Doctor in Britain, see Y. Michael Barilan, "The Doctor by Luke Fildes: An Icon in Context," J. Med. Human. 28 (2007): 59-80. The version of the story that Whitaker and Baxter would promote is in National Education Campaign, American Medical Association, "Immediate Release" (Chicago, n.d.), Whitaker and Baxter Campaigns, Inc. Records (C134), Offce of the Secretary of State, California State Archives, Sacramento (hereafter Whitaker and Baxter Papers), box 10, folder 25.
158. On the early circulation of The Doctor in the United States, see Susan E. Lederer and Naomi Rogers, "Media," in Medicine in the Twentieth Century, ed. Roger Cooter and John Pickstone (London: Harwood, 2000), 487-502, on 496
159. Gifford, "Fildes and 'The Doctor'" (n. 91)
160. Homer Tourjée (music) and W. Murdoch Lind (words), "Save Our Little Nell" (New York: Homer Tourjée Music, 1896), Yale University, Harvey Cushing/John Hay Whitney Medical Library
161. "To Honor Sir James Clark," New York Times, December 31, 1933
162. "Sculpticolor of Fildes's Masterpiece 'The Doctor' Goes to Rosenwald Museum," New England J. Med. 218 (1938): 1116.
163. L. H. Robbins, "The Family Doctor's Shingle Stays Up," New York Times, January 17, 1932
164. "Dr. Moorhead Dies: Aided 2,000 Births," New York Times, September 20, 1935.
165. "The Doctor," JAMA 134 (1947): 460-61
166. "The Centennial Stamp," JAMA 134 (1947): 530.
167. I begin to explore this in John Harley Warner, "The Doctor in Early Cold War America," Lancet 381 (2013): 1452-53
168. On the political battles over health reform, see David Blumenthal and James A. Morone, The Heart of Power: Health and Politics in the Oval Office (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009)
169. Frank D. Campion, The AMA and U.S. Health Policy since 1940 (Chicago: Chicago Review Press, 1984), 128-51
170. Jonathan Engel, Doctors and Reformers: Discussion and Debate over Health Policy, 1925-1950 (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2001), 275-309
171. Monte M. Poen, Harry S. Truman versus the Medical Lobby (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1979).
172. Clem Whitaker, "Report to the House of Delegates of the California Medical Association," typescript, April 11, 1948, Whitaker and Baxter Papers, box 5, folder 6.
173. On Whitaker and Baxter, see Stanley Kelley Jr., Professional Public Relations and Political Power (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1956)
174. Jill Lepore, "The Lie Factory: How Politics Became a Business," New Yorker, September 24, 2012, 50-59. A good synopsis of the public relations campaign for the California Medical Association is in John Hunton to William Prosser, San Francisco, July 15, 1947, Whitaker and Baxter Papers, box 6, folder 5.
175. Clem Whitaker and Lenore Baxter, "AMA's Plan of Battle: An Outline of Strategy and Politics in the Campaign against Compulsory Health Insurance," February 12, 1949, Whitaker and Baxter Papers, box 9, folder 27
176. National Education Campaign, American Medical Association, "Calling Y-O-U: Bulletin from Whitaker & Baxter," June 16, 1949, Whitaker and Baxter Papers, box 10, folder 25
177. "Second National Conference, National Education Campaign, American Medical Association, February 12, 1950," Whitaker and Baxter Papers, box 9, folder 31
178. Alton S. Cole, "Capitol Mail Refects AMA Campaign," Medical Economics, October 1949, Isidore Sydney Falk Papers (MS 1039), Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library, New Haven, Conn. (hereafter Falk Papers), box 174, folder 2652
179. "Plan of Campaign for 1950. Transcript of Policies, Procedures, Objectives as Discussed at the Second National Conference, National Education Campaign, American Medical Association, February 12, 1950, Drake Hotel, Chicago," Falk Papers, box 174, folder 2657.
180. Whitaker and Baxter, "Analysis of Pamphlet Distribution in Relation to Population," National Education Campaign, American Medical Association, [1950], Whitaker and Baxter Papers, box 9, folder 35
181. Printed postcard for ordering campaign materials, Whitaker and Baxter Papers, box 11, folder 2; Whitaker and Baxter to Seymour G. Clark, June 14, 1949, Whitaker and Baxter Papers, box 9, folder 38.
182. Whitaker and Baxter to John Hunton, February 10, 1949, Whitaker and Baxter Papers, box 11, folder 7
183. "What Will We Do with the Doctor's $25.00? The National Campaign Plan of Procedure," reprinted from Dallas Med. J., April 1949, 57-62, circulated by Clem Whitaker and Lenore Baxter, for the Conference of State Medical Societies, Chicago, February 12, 1949, Falk Papers, box 174, folder 2654
184. Whitaker and Baxter to Andrew J. Signorelli, June 23, 1940, Whitaker and Baxter Papers, box 9, folder 38.
185. Ralph J. Gampell, "Socialized Medicine as I Saw It in England," composite transcript of recent addresses by Dr. Gampell (October 1949)
186. Fyer for talk, "An Exile from Socialized Medicine," meeting of the Chicago Accident and Health Association, November 22, 1949, Whitaker and Baxter Papers, box 10, folder 29.
187. E. F. Engebretson (executive director, North Dakota State Medical Association), Bismarck, North Dakota, to Whitaker and Baxter, May 25, 1949, Whitaker and Baxter Papers, box 9, folder 38. "65,000 Advertisers Supported AMA Theme," Editor & Publisher, December 9, 1950, in Whitaker and Baxter, Memorandum to State and County Medical Societies, Whitaker and Baxter Papers, box 10, folder 33
188. "1949 Campaign Report by the Coordinating Committee National Education Campaign, American Medical Association to the Board of Trustees and House of Delegates of the American Medical Association" (December 1949), Falk Papers, box 174, folder 2657
189. "Plan of Campaign for 1950" (n. 97)
190. Clem Whitaker and Lenore Baxter, "Display Advertising Schedule," memorandum to Advertising Director, Chicago, August 1, 1950, Whitaker and Baxter Papers, box 10, folder 31.
191. Helen Barr (Woman's Auxiliary to the Kentucky State Medical Association) to Whita-ker and Baxter, Owensboro, Ky., May 16, 1949, Whitaker and Baxter Papers, box 9, folder 38.
192. "It's Your Crusade Too! The Work of the Woman's Auxiliary to the American Medical Association Is of Nationwide Signifcance in the National Education Campaign to Preserve the American System of Medical Care and Medical Progress," printed pamphlet, [1951], Whitaker and Baxter Papers, box 10, folder 22.
193. "Pamphlets for Your Waiting Room," in California Medical Association, Legislative News, March 19, 1945, 3, Whitaker and Baxter Papers, box 6, folder 5.
194. Clem Whitaker, "The Battle for Survival," Illinois Med. J., September 1949, 180-86, quotation on 183, Falk Papers, box 174, folder 2658
195. H. P. Freyer, Milwaukee, Wisc., November 11, 1949, to American Medical Association, Whitaker and Baxter Papers, box 9, folder 39
196. "Campaign Coordinating Committee Report to the House of Delegates, American Medical Association," December 4, 1951, Whitaker and Baxter Papers, box 10, folder 16.
197. H. K. Shumaker to Sirs, Bellevue, Ohio, July 11, 1949, handwritten note on the bottom of a form letter (Whitaker and Baxter to Dear Doctor, Chicago, [1949]) sending a print of The Doctor, Whitaker and Baxter Papers, box 9, folder 38.
198. "Famous Painting Dramatizes A.M.A. National Education Campaign," National Education Campaign, "Immediate Release," Chicago, June 6, [1949], Whitaker and Baxter Papers, box 10, folder 25.
199. H. Gordon MacLean, "California Medical Association, Inaugural Broadcast," typescript of radio address, Los Angeles, May 15, 1951, Whitaker and Baxter Papers, box 6, folder 8.
200. "What Political Medicine Will Do to Your Physician," advertisement sponsored by the Natrona County Medical Society, Casper Herald, Casper, Wyoming, September 10, 1945, Falk Papers, box 174, folder 2666.
201. Whitaker and Baxter perpetuated many of the images that had been circulated earlier by the National Physicians Committee in its fght against national health insurance; e.g., National Physicians Committee for the Extension of Medical Service, "An Editorial to Editors: Political Health Conference," Editor and Publisher, March 13, 1948, in Falk Papers, box 174, folder 2662
202. Priceless Heritage (Chicago: National Physicians Committee for the Extension of Medical Service, 1940).
203. Clem Whitaker to Greer Williams, March 22, 1951, Whitaker and Baxter Papers, box 10, folder 4; Elmer L. Henderson, "American Medicine Replies to President Truman: A Doctor's Diagnosis of the President's Compulsory Health Insurance Program," Chicago, n.d., Falk Papers, box 174, folder 2655.
204. National Physicians Committee advertisement described in Campion, AMA and U.S. Health Policy (n. 95), 136-37.
205. Stuart Murray and James McCabe, Norman Rockwell's Four Freedoms: Images That Inspire a Nation (Stockbridge, Mass.: Berkshire House, 1993), 3.
206. The 5th Freedom, Yours for the Asking (San Francisco: California Committee for Voluntary Health Insurance, [1946]), and Ed Clancy to Dear Friend, May 15, 1946, both in Earl Warren Papers (F3640), Miscellaneous Papers, Health Insurance File, Office of the Secretary of State, California State Archives, Sacramento.
207. John P. Peters to Connecticut State Medical Society, [New Haven, Conn.], June 1, 1950, John P. Peters Papers (MS 897), Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library, New Haven, Conn. (hereafter Peters Papers), box 1, folder 8.
208. Clem Whitaker to George F. Lull, January 16, 1950, Whitaker and Baxter Papers, box 10, folder 4.
209. Interview with Harry Becker, Director of the UAW-CIO Social Security Department, [Detroit radio broadcast], October 13, 1950, Whitaker and Baxter Papers, box 9, folder 42
210. John P. Peters, "The Need for a Comprehensive National Health Program," typescript of talk given at YWCA, Hartford, Conn., November 20, 1946, Peters Papers, box 11, folder 336.
211. James Howard Means, "The Doctors' Lobby," Atlantic Monthly, October 1950, 57-60, quotation on 58, in Whitaker and Baxter Papers, box 10, folder 33.
212. Ernst Boas to Milton [I. Roemer], July 17, 1950; and see [Ernst Boas], draft typescript, "To the Editorial Board of New York Medicine," October 24, 1952, and [Ernst Boas] to Leo Davidoff, February 1, 1952, all in Ernest P. Boas Papers (MS 10), American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia (hereafter Boas Papers)
213. Jane Pacht Brickman, "Medical McCarthyism: The Physicians Forum and the Cold War," J. Hist. Med. Allied Sci. 49 (1994): 380-418.
214. Ernst P. Boas, "Medicine for All," P.I.C. 15, no. 8 (1944): 48-49, quotation on 49, in Boas Papers.
215. G. M. Smith, February 12, 1949, and Ernst P. Boas to the Editor, New York Medicine, typescript, November 5, 1948; and see Ernest P. Boas, Statement before the Committee on Medicine and the Changing Order, January 26, 1944, all in Boas Papers.
216. Clem Whitaker to Elbert L. Persons, March 14, 1950, Whitaker and Baxter Papers, box 11, folder 8.
217. Elmer L. Henderson, "Address" to the AMA House of Delegates, [1949], Whitaker and Baxter Papers, box 10, folder 28.
218. "News Release from the American Medical Association," Chicago, June 27, 1950, Whitaker and Baxter Papers, box 10, folder 31
219. On the staging of The Doctor in the convention hall, see Committee for the Nation's Health, Bulletin 12, "Doctors in Politics," June 30, 1950, White House Central Files: Offcial File, OF 286-A, Harry S. Truman Papers, Harry S. Truman Library, Independence, Mo.
220. Milton Silverman, "A Newspaperman Views Medicine's Public Relations Policies," Guest Editorial, L.A. County Medical Association Bulletin, June 5, 1952, Whitaker and Baxter Papers, box 11, folder 9; and see [Ernst Boas] to Leo Davidoff, February 1, 1952, and [Ernst Boas] to John P. Peters, June 5, 1953, Boas Papers.