Female Representation in Law Enforcement: The Influence of Screening, Unions, Incentives, Community Policing, CALEA, and Size

Police Quarterly

Volumn 17, Issue 1, 2014, Pages 54-78

  Schuck, Amie M ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AT CHICAGO   (United States)

Author keywords

female representation; gender diversity; women in policing

Indexed keywords

EID: 84898854613     PISSN: 10986111     EISSN: 1552745X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/1098611114522467     Document Type: Article

References (60)

1. Ash P.,Slora K. B.,Britton C. F.Police agency officer selection practices.Journal of Police Science and Administration. 1990;17 (4): 258-269.
2. Becker G. S.The economics of discrimination. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press; 1957:.
3. Becker G. S.Human capital: A theoretical and empirical analysis, with special reference to education. New York, NY: Columbia University Press; 1964:.
4. Birzer M. L.,Craig D. E.Gender differences in police physical ability test performance.American Journal of Police. 1996;15 (2): 93-108.
5. BLS Reports. (2013). Women in the labor force: A databook. Report 1040. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Retrieved from http://www.bls.gov.
6. Burlingame D.,Baro A. L.Women's representation and status in law enforcement: Does CALEA involvement make a difference?.Criminal Justice Policy Review. 2005;16 (4): 391-411.
7. Calvo-Armengol A.,Jackson M. O.The effects of social networks on employment and inequality.The American Economic Review. 2004;94 (3): 426-454.
8. Chan J.,Doran S.,Marel C.Doing and undoing gender in policing.Theoretical Criminology. 2010;14 (4): 425-446.
9. Standards for law enforcement agencies. 19994th ed. Fairfax, VAAuthorFairfax, VA: Author; 1999:.
10. 2003 Annual Report. Fairfax, VA: Author; 2003:.
11. 2007 Annual Report. Fairfax, VA: Author; 2007:.
12. Cordner G.,Cordner A.Stuck on a plateau? Obstacles to recruitment, selection, and retention of women police.Police Quarterly. 2011;14 (3): 207-226.
13. Cotter D. A.,DeFiore J.,Hermsen J. M.,Kowalewski B. M.,Vanneman R.The demand for female labor.American Journal of Sociology. 1998;103 (6): 1673-1712.
14. Duncan O. D.,Duncan B.A methodological analysis of segregation indexes.American Sociological Review. 1955;20 (2): 210-217.
15. Economic and Social Research Institute. (2012). Diversity index statement 2012. Retrieved from http://www.esri.com.
16. Falcone D. N.,Wells L. E.The county sheriff as a distinctive policing modality.American Journal of Police. 1995;14 (3/4): 123-149.
17. Federal Bureau of Investigation. (2011). [Table illustration from crime in the Unites States, 2011]. Table 74. Full-time law enforcement employees. Retrieved from http:www.fbi.gov.
18. Gaines L. K.,Falkenberg S.,Gambino J. A.Police physical agility testing: An historical and legal analysis.American Journal of Police. 1993;12 (4): 47-66.
19. Goldstein H.Problem-oriented policing. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 1990:.
20. Hochstedler E.,Conley J. A.Explaining underrepresentation of black officers in city police agencies.Journal of Criminal Justice. 1986;14 (4): 319-328.
21. Hochstedler E.,Regoli R. M.,Poole E. D.Changing the guard in American cities: A current empirical assessment of integration in twenty municipal police departments.Criminal Justice Review. 1984;9 (1): 8-14.
22. Huber J.,Spitze G.Sex stratification: Children, housework and jobs. New York, NY: Academic Press; 1983:.
23. Jordan W. T.,Fridell L.,Faggiani D.,Kubu B.Attracting females and racial/ethnic minorities to law enforcement.Journal of Criminal Justice. 2009;37 (4): 333-341.
24. Kanter R. M.Men and women of the corporation. New York, NY: Basic Books; 1977:.
25. Krislov S.,Rosenbloom D. H.Representative bureaucracy and the American political system. New York, NY: Praeger; 1981:.
26. Langton, L. (2010). Women in law enforcement, 1987-2008. Washington, DC: Bureau of Justice Statistics. Retrieved from http://bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/wle8708.pdf.
27. Lewis W. G.Toward representative bureaucracy: Blacks in city police organizations, 1975-1985.Public Administration Review. 1989;49 (3): 257-267.
28. Lonsway K. A.Tearing down the wall: Problems with consistency, validity, and adverse impact of physical agility testing in police selection.Police Quarterly. 2003;6 (3): 237-277.
29. Lonsway, K. A., Aguirre, P., Gilliams, N., Lukens, A., Tejani, S., Moore, M. Harrington, P., Smeal, E., & Spillar, K. (2003). Under scrutiny: The effect of consent decrees on the representation of women in sworn law enforcement. Los Angeles, CA: National Center for Women & Policing. Retrieved from http://womenandpolicing.com.
30. Martin S. E.The effectiveness of affirmative action: The case of women in policing.Justice Quarterly. 1991;8 (4): 489-504.
31. Mastony, C. (2010, September 1). Was Chicago home to the country's 1st female cop? Chicago Tribune. Retrieved from http://www.chicagotribune.com.
32. Meier K. J.,Nicholson-Crotty J.Gender, representative bureaucracy, and law enforcement: The case of sexual assault.Public Administration Review. 2006;66 (6): 850-860.
33. Oppenheimer V. K.Demographic influence of female employment and the status of women.American Journal of Sociology. 1973;78 (4): 946-961.
34. Paternoster R.,Brame R.,Mazerolle P.,Piquero A.Using the correct statistical test for the equality of regression coefficients.Criminology. 1998;36 (4): 859-866.
35. Prenzler T.,Sinclair G.The status of women police officers: An international review.International Journal of Law, Crime and Justice. 2013;41 (2): 115-131.
36. Prokos A.,Padavic I."There oughtta be a law against bitches": Masculinity lessons in police academy training.Gender, Work & Organization. 2002;9 (4): 439-459.
37. Rabe-Hemp C. E.POLICEwomen or policeWOMEN? Doing gender and police work.Feminist Criminology. 2009;4 (2): 114-129.
38. Riccucci N. M.Female and minority employment in city government: The role of unions.Policy Studies Journal. 1986;15 (1): 3-15.
39. Reskin B.Sex segregation in the workplace.Annual Review of Sociology. 1993;19:241-270.
40. Sass T. R.,Troyer J. L.Affirmative action, political representation, unions, and female police employment.Journal of Labor Research. 1999;20 (4): 571-587.
41. Schroedel J. R.,Frisch S.,Hallamore N.,Peterson J.,Vanderhorst N.Joint impact of race and gender on police department employment practices.Women & Criminal Justice. 1996;8 (2): 59-77.
42. Schulz D. M.Women police chiefs: A statistical profile.Police Quarterly. 2003;6 (3): 330-345.
43. Schulz D. M.Breaking the brass ceiling: Women police chiefs & their paths to the top. Westport, CT: Praeger; 2004:.
44. Scrivner E.Innovations in police recruitment and hiring. Hiring in the spirit of service. Washington, DC: Office of Community Oriented Policing Services.; 2006:.
45. Seklecki R.,Paynich R.A national survey of female police officers: An overview of findings.Police Practice and Research. 2007;8 (1): 17-30.
46. Stata statistical software: Release 12. College Station, TX: StataCorp LP; 2011:.
47. Stivers C. M.Gender images in public administration: Legitimacy and the administrative state. 2nd. Edition. Newbury Park, CA: Sage; 2002:.
48. Tabachnick B. G.,Fidell L. S.Using multivariate statistics. 20075th ed. Boston, MAPearsonBoston, MA: Pearson; 2007:.
49. Townsey R. D.The criminal justice system and women: Women offenders, victims, and workers (Chapter 23,. Price B. R.Sokolff N. J., ed. New York, NY: Clark Boardman; 1992:413-425.
50. United States Census Bureau. (2011). 2005-2009 American Community Survey. U.S. Census Bureau's American Community Survey Office, 2011. Retrieved from http://ftp2.census.gov.
51. United States Department of Justice. (2006). Law Enforcement Management and Administrative Statistics (LEMAS): 2003 Sample Survey of Law Enforcement Agencies. ICPSR04411-v1. Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research [distributor], 2006-05-10. doi:10.3886/ICPSR04411.v1.
52. United States Department of Justice. (2011a). Law Enforcement Management and Administrative Statistics (LEMAS), 2007 [Computer file]. ICPSR31161-v1. Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research [distributor], 2011-07-07. doi:10.3886/ICPSR31161.v1.
53. United States Department of Justice. (2011b). Census of State and Local Law Enforcement Agencies (CSLLEA), 2008. ICPSR27681-v1. Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research [distributor], 2011-08-03. doi:10.3886/ICPSR27681.v1.
54. Waddington P. A. J.Police (canteen) sub-culture.An appreciation. British Journal of Criminology. 1999;39 (2): 287-309.
55. Walker S.Racial minority and female employment in policing: The implication of "glacial" change.Crime & Delinquency. 1985;31 (4): 555-572.
56. Walker S.The neglect of police unions: Exploring one of the most important areas of American policing.Police Practice and Research. 2008;9 (2): 95-112.
57. Warner R. L.,Steel B. S.,Lovrich N. P.Conditions associated with advent of representative bureaucracy: The case of women in policing.Social Science Quarterly. 1989;70 (3): 562-578.
58. Wilson J. Q.,Kelling G.Broken windows: The police and neighborhood safety.Atlantic Monthly. 1982, March;249 (3): 29-38.
59. Zhao J. S.,He N.,Lovrich N. P.Pursuing gender diversity in police organizations in the 1990s: A longitudinal analysis of factors associated with the hiring of female officers.Police Quarterly. 2006;9 (4): 463-485.
60. Zhao J.,Herbst L.,Lovrich N.Race, ethnicity and the female cop: Differential patterns of representation.Journal of Urban Affairs. 2001;23 (3-4): 243-257.