Framing terrorism: The news media, the government and the public

Framing Terrorism: The News Media, the Government and the Public

Volumn , Issue , 2003, Pages 1-329

  Norris, Pippa ^a   Kern, Montague ^b   Just, Marion ^a,c  

^a HARVARD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b RUTGERS UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c WELLESLEY COLLEGE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84898665371     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.4324/9780203484845     Document Type: Book

References (273)

1. Abramson , Paul . 1983. Political Attitudes in America. San Francisco: Freeman and Co.
2. Adams , William C. Ed. 1981. Television Coverage of the Middle East. Norwood, NJ: Ablex Press.
3. Addison , Michael . 2002. Violent Politics: Strategies of Internal Conflict. New York: Palgrave.
4. Alali , Odasuo A. and Gary W. Byrd . Eds. 1994. Terrorism and the News Media: A Selected, Annotated Bibliography. New York: McFarland & Company.
5. Alali , Odasuo A. and Kenoye Kelvin Eke . Eds. 1991. Media Coverage of Terrorism: Methods of Diffusion. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
6. Alexander , Yonah and Robert Picard . 1991. In the Camera's Eye: News Coverage of Terrorist Events. Washington, DC: Brasseys.
7. Almond , Gabriel A. , and Sidney Verba . 1963. The Civic Culture: Political Attitudes and Democracy in Five Nations. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
8. Alper , S. William and Thomas Liedy . 1969-1970. 'The Impact of Information Transmission Through Television.' Public Opinion Quarterly 33: 556-562.
9. Altheide , David L. 1987. 'Format and Symbols in TV Coverage of Terrorism in the United States and Great Britain.' International Studies Quarterly 31: 161-76.
10. Ansolabehere , Stephen , Roy Behr , and Shanto Iyengar . 1993. The Media Game: American Politics in the Television Age. New York: Macmillan.
11. Ansolbehere , Stephen , Shanto Iyengar , and Nicholas Valentino . 1994. 'Does Attack Advertising Demobilize the Electorate?' American Political Science Review 88: 829-838.
12. Aufderheide , Pat. 2002. 'All-too-reality TV: Challenges for Television Journalists after September 11.' Journalism: Theory, practice and criticism 3(1).
13. Ayish , M. I. 2002. 'Political Communication on Arab World Television: Evolving Patterns.' Political communication. 19(2): 137-154.
14. Bahry , Donna L , and Brian D. Silver . 1990. 'Soviet Citizen Participation on the Eve of Democratization.' American Political Science Review 84 (September): 821-848.
15. Bahry , Donna L. , and Brian D. Silver . 1987. 'Intimidation and the Symbolic Uses of Terror in the USSR.' American Political Science Review 81 (December): 1065-1098.
16. Barnhurst , Kevin . 1991.'Contemporary Terrorism in Peru: Sendero-Luminoso and the Media.' Journal of Communication. 41(4): 75-89.
17. Barnhurst , Stephen R. 2002. International Terrorism and Political Violence. Victoria, BC: Trafford.
18. Bartels , Larry M. 1993. 'Messages Received: The Political Impact of Media Exposure.' American Political Science Review, 87(2): 267-285.
19. Bennett , W. Lance and David L. Paletz (Eds.) 1994. Taken by Storm: The Media, Public Opinion, and U.S. Foreign Policy in the Gulf War. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
20. Bennett , W. Lance . 2000. News: The Politics of Illusion. 4th Ed. New York: Longman.
21. Birkland , Thomas A. 1997. After Disaster: Agenda setting, Public Policy, and Focusing Events. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press.
22. Birkland , Thomas A. , and Regina G. Lawrence . 2001. 'The Exxon Valdez and Alaska in the American Imagination.' In American Disasters, edited by S. Biel . New York: New York University Press.
23. Brehm , John , and Wendy Rahn . 1997. 'Individual-Level Evidence for the Causes and Consequences of Social Capital.' American Journal of Political Science 41(3): 999-1023.
24. Brewer , Paul R. , and Marco R. Steenbergen . 2002. 'All Against All: How Beliefs about Human Nature Shape Foreign Policy Opinions.' Political Psychology 23(1): 39-58.
25. Brody , Richard A. 1991. Assessing the President: The Media, Elite Opinion, and Public Support. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
26. Campbell , Christopher P. 1995. Race, Myth, and the News. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
27. Cappella , Joseph N. , and Kathleen Hall Jamieson . 1997. Spiral of Cynicism: The Press and the Public Good. New York: Oxford University Press.
28. Carruthers , Susan L. 2000. The Media at War. New York: St. Martin's Press.
29. Chanley , Virginia A. , Thomas J. Rudolph , and Wendy M. Rahn . 2000. 'The Origins and Consequences of Public Trust in Government.' Public Opinion Quarterly 64(3): 239-56.
30. Chomsky , Noam . 2002. 9/11. New York: Seven Stories Press.
31. Citrin , Jack , and Donald Philip Green . 1986. 'Presidential Leadership and the Resurgence of Trust in Government.' British Journal of Political Science 16(4): 431-53.
32. Citrin , Jack , Beth Reingold , and Donald P. Green . 1990. 'American Identity and the Politics of Ethnic Change,' Journal of Politics 52 (November): 1124-1154.
33. Citrin , Jack . 1974. 'Comment: The Political Relevance of Trust in Government.' American Political Science Review 68(3): 973-88.
34. Cole , Thomas B. 2000. 'When a Bio-weapon Strikes, Who Will be in Charge?' Journal of the American Medical Association, 284(8): 944-948.
35. Cooper , H. H. A. 1977. 'Terrorism and the Media.' In Terrorism: the Interdisciplinary Perspectives. Eds. Y. Alexander and S. M. Finger . New York: John Jay Press.
36. Craig , Stephen C. 1993. The Malevolent Leaders: Popular Discontent in America. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
37. Crelinsten R. D. 1989. 'Images of Terrorism in the Media: 1966-1985.' Terrorism. 12(3): 167-198.
38. Crelinsten , R. D. 1998. 'The Discourse and Practice of Counter Terrorism in Liberal Democracies.' Australian Journal of Politics and History. 44(3): 389-413.
39. Crelinsten , R. D. 1986. 'Power and Meaning: Terrorism as a Struggle over Access to the Communication Structure.' In Contemporary Research on Terrorism. Paul Wilkinson and A. M. Stewart . Eds. Aberdeen: Aberdeen University Press.
40. Crenshaw , Martha . 1989. Terrorism and International Cooperation. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
41. Crenshaw , Martha . 1990. 'The Logic of Terrorism: Terrorist Behavior as a Product of Strategic Choice.' In Origins of Terrorism. Ed. W. Reich . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
42. Crenshaw , Martha . 1995. Ed. Terrorism in Context. Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University.
43. Crenshaw , Martha . 1997. Encyclopedia of World Terrorism. Armonk, N.Y: Sharpe Reference.
44. Crenshaw , Martha . 2000. 'Terrorism and International Violence.' In Manus I. Midlarsky (editor). Handbook of War Studies II. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
45. Davis , Darren W. 1995. 'Exploring Black Political Intolerance.' Political Behavior 17: 1-22.
46. Davis , James A. 'Communism, Conformity, Cohorts, and Categories: American Tolerance in 1954 and 1972-73.' American Journal of Sociology 81 (November): 491-513.
47. Dearing , James W. and Everett M. Rogers . 1996. Agenda-setting. Thousand Oaks: Sage.
48. Delli Carpini , Michael and Bruce A. Williams . 1987. 'Television and Terrorism: Patterns of Presentation and Occurrence 1969 to 1980.' Western Political Quarterly. 40(1): 45-64.
49. Dobkin , Bethami A. 1992. Tales of Terror: Television News and the Construction of the Terrorist Threat. New York: Praeger.
50. Dowley , Kathleen M. , and Brian D. Silver . 2000. 'Sub-national and National Loyalty: Cross-National Comparisons,' International Journal of Public Opinion Research 12 (November): 357-371.
51. Dowley , Kathleen M. , and Brian D. Silver . 2002. 'Social Capital, Ethnicity, and Support for Democracy in the Post-Communist States.' Europe-Asia Studies 44 (June): 505-527.
52. Dowling , R. E. 1986. 'Terrorism and the Media: A Rhetorical Genre.' Journal of Communication. 36(1): 12-24.
53. Easton , David . 1965. A Systems Analysis of Political Life. New York: Wiley.
54. Easton , David . 1975. 'A Re-Assessment of the Concept of Political Support.' British Journal of Political Science 5(4): 435-57.
55. Edelman , Murray . 1985. The Symbolic Uses of Politics. Urbana and Chicago: The University of Chicago Press (1967).
56. Edelman , Murray . 1988. Constructing the Political Spectacle. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
57. El-Nawawy , Mohammed and Adel Iskandar . 2002. Al Jazeera: How the Free Arab News Network Scooped the World and Changed the Middle East. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
58. Enders , Walter , and Todd Sandler . 1999. 'Transnational Terrorism in the Post-Cold War Era.' International Studies Quarterly 43: 145-167.
59. Enders , Walter , and Todd Sandler . 2000. 'Is Transnational Terrorism Becoming More Threatening? A Time-Series Investigation.' Journal of Conflict Resolution 44: 307-332.
60. Enders , Walter , and Todd Sandler . 2002. 'Patterns of Transnational Terrorism, 1970-1999: Alternative Time-Series Estimates.' International Studies Quarterly 46: 145-165.
61. Entman , Robert M. and Andrew Rojecki . 2000. The Black Image in the White Mind. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
62. Erber , Ralph and Richard R. Lau . 1990. 'Political Cynicism Revisited: An Information-Processing Reconciliation of Policy-Based and Incumbency-Based Interpretations of Changes in Trust in Government.' American Journal of Political Science 34(1): 236-53.
63. Falkenrath , Richard A. , Robert D. Newman , and Bradley A. Thayer . 1998. America's Achilles' Heel: Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical Terrorism and Covert Attack. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
64. Fallows , James . 1996. Breaking the News. New York: Vintage.
65. Feldman , Stanley and Lee Seligman . 1985. 'The Political Impact of Prime-Time Television: The Day After.' Journal of Politics, 47: 557-578.
66. Feldman , Stanley , and Karen Stenner . 1997. 'Perceived Threat and Authoritarianism.' Political Psychology 18 (December): 741-770.
67. Feldman , Stanley . 1983. 'The Measurement and Meaning of Political Trust.' Political Methodology 9(3): 341-54.
68. Fischoff , Baruch . 1996. 'Reporting on Environmental and Health Risks.' The Quill 83(6) (July-August), 43-7.
69. Frey , R. G. and Christopher W. Morris . Eds. 1991. Violence, Terrorism and Justice. New York: Cambridge University Press.
70. Friedman , Sharon M. 1991. 'Two Decades of the Environmental Beat.' In Media and the Environment. Ed. Craig L. LaMay and Everette E. Dennis , 17-28. Washington: Island Press.
71. Gamson , William A. 1968. Power and Disconnect. Homewood, IL: Dorsey.
72. Gamson , William A. and A. Modigliani . 1989. 'Media Discourse and Public Opinion on Nuclear Power: A Constructionist Approach.' American Journal of Sociology. 95: 1-37.
73. Gamson , William A. , D. Croteau , W. Hoynes , and T. Sasson . 1992. 'Media Images and the Social Construction of Reality.' Annual Review of Sociology 18: 373-93.
74. Gans , Herbert . 1980. Deciding What's News. New York: Vintage.
75. George , A. 1991. Western State Terrorism. New York: Routledge.
76. Gibson , James L. 1987. 'Homosexuals and the Ku Klux Klan: A Contextual Analysis of Political Intolerance.' Western Political Quarterly 40: 427-448.
77. Gibson , James L. 1989. 'The Policy Consequences of Political Intolerance: Political Repression During the Vietnam War Era.' Journal of Politics 51: 13-35.
78. Gibson , James L. 1993. 'Perceived Political Freedom in the Soviet Union.' Journal of Politics 55: 936-974.
79. Gibson , James L. 1995. 'The Political Freedom of African Americans: A Contextual Analysis of Racial Attitudes, Political Tolerance, and Individual Liberty.' Political Geography 14: 571-599.
80. Gibson , James L. 1996. 'A Mile Wide But an Inch Deep: The Structure of Democratic Commitments in the Former USSR,' American Journal of Political Science 40 (May): 396-420.
81. Gibson , James L. 1998. 'A Sober Second Thought: An Experiment in Persuading Russians to Tolerate.' American Journal of Political Science 42 (July): 819-850.
82. Gibson , James L. , and Amanda Gouws . 2000. 'Social Identities and Political Intolerance: Linkages Within the South African Mass Public.' American Journal of Political Science 44: 278-292.
83. Gibson , James L. , and Richard D. Bingham . 1985. Civil Liberties and Nazis: The Skokie Free Speech Controversy. New York: Praeger.
84. Gibson , James L. , Raymond M. Duch , and Kent L. Tedin . 1992. 'Democratic Values and the Transformation of the Soviet Union,' Journal of Politics 54: 329-371.
85. Gilbert Allison , Robyn Walensky , Melinda Murphy , Phil Hirschkorn , Mitchell Stephens . Editors. 2002. Covering Catastrophe: Broadcast Journalists Report September 11. NY: Bonus Books.
86. Gomberg , Paul . 2002. 'Patriotism is Like Racism.' In Igor Primoratz Ed. Patriotism. Amherst, New York: Humanity Books.
87. Graber , Doris . 1980. Mass Media and American Politics. Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly.
88. Greenberg , Bradley S. 1986. 'Minorities and the Mass Media.' In Jennings Bryant and Dolf Zillmann , Eds. Perspectives on Media Effects. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum.
89. Greenberg , Bradley S. and Marcia Thomson . 2002. Communication and Terrorism: Public and Media Responses to 9/11. Hampton Press.
90. Hafez , Kai . 2000. Mass Media, Politics and Society in the Middle East. Hampton Press.
91. Hafez , Kai . Ed. 2000. Islam and the West in the Mass Media: Fragmented Images in a Globalizing World. Hampton Press.
92. Hafez , Kai . Ed. 2001. Mass Media and Society in the Middle East. Hampton Press.
93. Hahn , Robert W. Ed. 1996. Risks, Costs and Lives Saved: Getting Better Results from Regulation. Washington: AEI Press.
94. Hallin , Daniel C. 1986. The 'Uncensored War': The Media and Vietnam. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
95. Hembroff , Larry A. 2002. 'The Civil Liberties Survey, 2001: Methodological Report,' Institute for Public Policy and Social Research, Michigan State University.
96. Herman , Edward S. and Gerry O'Sullivan . 1989. The Terrorism Industry: The Experts and Institutions that Shape our View of Terror. New York: Pantheon.
97. Herman , Edward S. and Noam Chomsky . 1988. Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media. New York: Pantheon.
98. Hetherington , Marc J. 1998. 'The Political Relevance of Political Trust.' American Political Science Review 92(4): 791-808.
99. Hetherington , Marc J. 1999. 'The Effect of Political Trust on the Presidential Vote, 1968-96.' American Political Science Review 93(2): 311-26.
100. Hetherington , Marc J. , and Suzanne Globetti . 2002. 'Political Trust and Racial Policy Preferences.' American Journal of Political Science 46(2): 253-75.
101. Hibbing , John R. , and Elizabeth Theiss-Morse . 1995. Congress As Public Enemy: Public Attitudes toward American Political Institutions. New York: Cambridge University Press.
102. Hoffman , Bruce . 1998. Inside Terrorism. New York: Columbia University Press.
103. Hoffman , D. 2002. 'Beyond Public Diplomacy.' Foreign Affairs. 81(2): 83-90.
104. Hornig , Susanna . 1993. 'Framing risk: Audience and reader factors.' Journalism Quarterly 69(3): 679-690.
105. Howell , Susan F. , and Deborah Fagan . 1988. 'Race and Trust in Government: Testing the Political Reality Model.' Public Opinion Quarterly 52(3): 343-350.
106. Huddy , Leonie , Nadia Khatib , and Theresa Capelos . 2002. 'The Polls-Trends: Reactions to the Terrorist Attacks of September 11, 2001.' Public Opinion Quarterly 56(3): XXX-XXX.
107. Hurwitz , Jon , and Mark Peffley . 1987. 'How Are Foreign Policy Attitudes Structured? A Hierarchical Model.' American Political Science Review, 81(4): 1099-1120.
108. Hurwitz , Jon , and Mark Peffley . 1990. 'Public Images of the Soviet Union: The Impact on Foreign Policy Attitudes.' Journal of Politics 52(1): 3-28.
109. Inglehart , Ronald . 1997. Modernization and Postmodernization: Cultural, Economic and Political Change in 43 Societies. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
110. Ito , Y. 1990. 'Mass Communication Theories from a Japanese Perspective.' Media, Culture and Society 12: 423-464.
111. Iyengar , Shanto and Donald Kinder . 1987. News That Matters: Television and American Opinion. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
112. Iyengar , Shanto and Silvo Lenart . 1988. 'Beyond 'Minimal Consequences:' A Survey of Media Political Effects.' In Samuel Long , ed. Political Behavior Annual. Boulder, CO: Westview.
113. Iyengar , Shanto . 1991. Is Anyone Responsible? How Television Frames Political Issues. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
114. Jackman , Robert W. 1972. 'Political Elites, Mass Publics, and Support for Democratic Principles.' Journal of Politics 34(3): 753-773.
115. Jackson , David J. 2001. 'Outside of a Small Circle of Friends: The Political Influence of Entertainment Television.' Paper presented at the 2001 annual meeting of the American Political Science Association, August 30-September 2, San Francisco, CA.
116. Johnson , Donald . 1963. The Challenge to American Freedoms: World War I and the Rise of the American Civil Liberties Union. Lexington, KY: University of Kentucky Press.
117. Johnson , Larry C. 2001. 'The Future of Terrorism.' American Behavioral Scientist. 44(6): 894-913.
118. Just , Marion , Ann Crigler , Dean Alger , Timothy Cook , Montague Kern and Darrell West , 1996. Crosstalk: Citizens, Candidates and the Media in a Presidential Campaign. University of Chicago Press.
119. Keene , Karlyn . 1980. 'Rally 'Round the President.' Public Opinion 3(2): 28-9.
120. Kellner , D. 2002. 'September 11, the Media, and War Fever.' Television & New Media 3(2): 143-151.
121. Kerbel , Matthew Robert . 1994. Edited for Television. Boulder, CO: Westview.
122. Kern , Montague and Marion Just . 1995. "The Focus Group Method, Political Advertising, Campaign News and the Construction of Candidate Images," Political Communication, April-June.
123. Kern , Montague , Patricia W. Levering , and Ralph B. Levering . 1984. The Kennedy Crises: The Press, the Presidency and Foreign Policy. University of North Carolina Press.
124. Knightley , Philip . 1975. The First Casualty. N.Y.: Harcourt Brace and Jovanovitch.
125. Kuklinski , James H. , Ellen Riggle , Victor Ottai , Norbert Schwarz , and Robert S. Wyer , Jr. 1991. 'The Cognitive and Affective Bases of Political Tolerance Judgments.' American Journal of Political Science 35(1): 1-27.
126. Lakos , A. 1986. International Terrorism: A Bibliography. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
127. Lane , Robert E. 1959. Political Life: Why and How People Get Involved in Politics. New York: Free Press.
128. Laqueur , Walter . 1977. Terrorism. Boston: Little Brown.
129. Lasswell , Harold . 1988. Psychopathology and Politics. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. (1930).
130. Lawrence , Regina G. 2000a. 'Game-framing the issues: Tracking the strategy frame in public policy news.' Political Communication 17(2): 93-114.
131. Lawrence , Regina . 2000b. The Politics of Force. Berkeley: University of California Press.
132. Lenart , Slivo and Kathleen M. McGraw . 1989. 'America Watches America: Television Docudrama and Political Attitudes.' Journal of Politics 51: 698-712.
133. Lesser , Ian O. , Bruce Hoffman , John Arquilla , Michele Zanini , and David Ronfeldt . 1999. Countering the New Terrorism. Rand Corporation.
134. Levi , Margeret . 1996. 'Social and Unsocial Capital: A Review Essay of Robert Putnam's 'Making Democracy Work'.' Politics and Society 24(1): 45-55.
135. Levy , Leonard W. 1963. Jefferson and Civil Liberties: The Darker Side. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
136. Lewis , C. W. 2000. 'The terror that failed: Public opinion in the aftermath of the bombing in Oklahoma City.' Public Administration Review. 60(3): 201-210.
137. Liebes , Tamar . 1997. Reporting the Arab Israeli Conflict: How Hegemony Works. London: Routledge.
138. Linfield , Michael . 1990. Freedom Under Fire: U.S. Civil Liberties in Times of War. Boston: South End Press.
139. Lippmann , Walter . 1946. Public Opinion. New York, N.Y.: Free Press.
140. Lipset , Seymour Martin , and William Schneider . 1983. The Confidence Gap: Business, Labor, and Government in the Public Mind. New York: Free Press.
141. Livingston , Steven . 1994. The Terrorism Spectacle. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
142. Luce , Mary Frances , James R. Bettman , and John W. Payne . 1997. 'Choice Processing in Emotionally Difficult Decisions.' Journal of Experimental Psychology, 23(1): 384-405.
143. Mackenzie , G. Calvin , and Judith M. Labiner . 2002. Opportunity Lost: The Rise and Fall of Trust and Confidence in Government After September 11. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution.
144. Mamdani , M. 2002. 'Good Muslim, Bad Muslim: A Political Perspective on Culture and Terror.' American Anthropologist. 104(3): 766-775.
145. Markus , Gregory B. 1979a. Analyzing Panel Data. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications.
146. Markus , Gregory B. 1979b. 'The Political Environment and the Dynamics of Public Attitudes: A Panel Study.' American Journal of Political Science 23(2): 338-59.
147. Martín Barbero , Jesús . 1998. 'De los medios a las mediaciones.' Comunicación, Cultura y Hegemonía. México. Ediciones G. Gili.
148. Maslow , Abraham . 1954. Motivation and Personality. New York: Harper and Row.
149. Mazur , Allan . 1981. 'Media Coverage and Public Opinion on Scientific Controversies.' Journal of Communication 31(2): 106-115.
150. McBride , Allan and Robert K. Toberen . 1996. 'Deep Structures: Pol-pop Culture on Primetime Television.' Journal of Popular Culture. 29:181-200.
151. McBride , Allan . 1998. 'Television, Individualism, and Social Capital.' PS: Politics and Political Science, 31: 542-553.
152. McChesney , Robert W. 2002. 'The Zillionth Time as Tragedy.' Television & New Media. 3(2): 133-137.
153. McChesney , Robert W. 2002. 'The US News Media and World War III.' Journalism: Theory, Practice and Criticism 3(1).
154. McClosky , Herbert and Alida Brill . 1983. Dimensions of Tolerance: What Americans Believe About Civil Liberties. New York: Russell Sage.
155. McClosky , Herbert . 1964. 'Consensus and Ideology in American Politics.' American Political Science Review 58(2): 361-382.
156. McCombs , Maxwell and Donald Shaw . 1972. 'The agenda-setting function of the mass media.' Public Opinion Quarterly. 36: 176-187.
157. McCombs , Maxwell , Donald Shaw and David Weaver . Eds. 1997. Communication and Democracy: Exploring the Intellectual Frontiers in Agenda-Setting Theory. New York: Lawrence Erlbaum Assoc.
158. McCombs , Maxwell . 2002. Setting the Agenda: The News Media and Public Opinion. Oxford, England and Malden, MA. Polity Press an imprint of Blackwell.
159. McCutcheon , Allan L. 1985. 'A Latent Class Analysis of Tolerance for Nonconformity in the American Public,' Public Opinion Quarterly 49(4): 474-488.
160. Midlarsky , Manus I. , Martha Crenshaw and Fumihiko Yoshida . 1980. 'Why violence spreads: The contagion of international terrorism.' International Studies Quarterly. 24(2): 262-298.
161. Milbank , Dana , and Richard Morin . 2001. 'Public Is Unyielding in War Against Terror: 9 in 10 Back Robust Military Response.' Washington Post, September 29.
162. Miller , D . 2002. 'Opinion Polls and the Misrepresentation of Public Opinion on the War with Afghanistan.' Television & New Media. 3(2):153-161.
163. Miller , Arthur H. 1974a. 'Political Issues and Trust in Government: 1964-1970.' American Political Science Review 68(3): 951-72.
164. Miller , Arthur H. 1974b. 'Rejoinder to 'Comment' by Jack Citrin: Political Discontent or Ritualism?' American Political Science Review 68(3): 989-1001.
165. Mindich , David T. Z. 2002. 'September 11 and its challenge to journalism criticism.' Journalism: Theory, practice and criticism 3(1).
166. Moore , David W. 2001. Confidence in Leaders: Record Rally Effect for President, Congress as Americans Support Government Leaders in Wake of Terrorist Attacks. Princeton, NJ: Gallup Organization.
167. Mowlana , Hamid . 1985. International Flow of Information: Global Report and Analysis. Paris: UNESCO.
168. Mowlana , Hamid . 1993. 'Towards a NWICO for the Twenty-First Century.' Journal of International Affairs 47(1): 59-72.
169. Mueller , John E. 1970. 'Presidential Popularity from Truman to Johnson.' American Political Science Review 64(1): 18-34.
170. Mueller , John E. 1973. War, Presidents, and Public Opinion. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
171. Nacos , Brigitte L. 1990. The Press, Presidents, and Crises. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.
172. Nacos , Brigitte L. 1996. Terrorism and the Media: From the Iran Hostage Crisis to the Oklahoma City Bombing. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.
173. Nacos , Brigitte L. 2000. 'Accomplice or witness? The media's role in terrorism.' Current History 99(636): 174-178.
174. Nacos , Brigitte L. 2002. Mass-Mediated Terrorism. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield.
175. Nacos , Brigitte L , Robert Y. Shapiro and Pierangelo Isernia . Eds. 2002. Decision-making in a Glass House: Mass Media, Public Opinion, and American and European Foreign Policy in the 21st Century.
176. Nacos , Brigitte L. and Natasha Hritzuk , 2000. 'The Portrayal of Black America in the Mass Media.' In Black and Multicultural Politics in America. Eds. Yvette M. Alex Assensoh and Lawrence Hanks . New York, NY: New York University Press.
177. Nacos , Brigitte L. , David P. Fan , and J. T. Young . 1989. 'Terrorism and the print media: The 1985 TWA Hostage Crisis.' Terrorism. 12(2): 107-115.
178. National Research Council, Committee on Risk Characterization, 1996. Understanding Risk: Informing Decisions in a Democratic Society. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.
179. Neely , Mark E. , Jr. 1991. The Fate of Liberty: Abraham Lincoln and Civil Liberties. New York: Oxford University Press.
180. Nelkin , D . 1989. 'Communicating Technological Risk: The Social Construction of Risk Perception.' Annual Review of Public Health 10: 95-113.
181. Nelson , Michael . Ed. 1989. The Elections of 1988. Washington: Congressional Quarterly.
182. Nelson , P. S. and J. L. Scott . 1992. 'Terrorism and the media: An empirical analysis.' Defence Economics 3(4): 329-339.
183. Neuman , Russell W. , Marion R. Just and Ann N. Crigler . 1996. Common Knowledge: News and the Construction of Political Meaning. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
184. Neustadt , Richard E. 1960. Presidential Power: The Politics of Leadership. New York: Wiley.
185. Newton , Kenneth , and Pippa Norris . 2000. 'Confidence in Public Institutions: Faith, Culture, or Performance?' in Disaffected Democracies: What's Troubling the Trilateral Countries?, Ed. Susan J. Pharr and Robert D. Putnam . Princeton: Princeton University Press.
186. Noakes , J. A. , and K. G. Wilkins . 2002. 'Shifting Frames of the Palestinian Movement in US News.' Media, Culture and Society. 24(5): 649-655.
187. NORC. 2001. 'America Rebounds: A National Study of Public Response to the September Terrorist Attacks: Preliminary Findings.' NORC, University of Chicago (prepared by Tom W. Smith , Kenneth A. Rasinski , and Marianna Toce ).
188. Norris , Pippa . 1999. Critical Citizens: Global Support for Democratic Governance. New York: Oxford University Press.
189. Nunn , Clyde A. , Harry J. Crockett Jr. , and Allen J . Williams , Jr . 1978. Tolerance for Nonconformity: A National Survey of Changing Commitment to Civil Liberties. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
190. O'Heffernan , Patrick . 1994. 'A Mutual Exploitation Model of Media Influence in U.S. Foreign Policy,' pp. 231-249 in Taken By Storm: The Media, Public Opinion, and U.S. Foreign Policy in the Gulf War, Eds. W. Lance Bennett and David L. Paletz . Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
191. Oliverio , Annemarie . 1998. The State of Terror. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
192. Page , Benjamin . 1996. Who Deliberates? Mass Media in Modern Democracy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
193. Paletz , David L. and Alex P. Schmid , Eds. 1992. Terrorism and the Media. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
194. Palmer , Nancy . 2003. (editor) Terrorism, War and the Press. The Joan Shorenstein Center on the Press, Politics and Public Policy, John F. Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University.
195. Parker , Suzanne L. 1995. 'Toward an Understanding of 'Rally' Effects: Public Opinion in the Persian Gulf War.' Public Opinion Quarterly 59(4): 526-46.
196. Peffley , Mark , and Jon Hurwitz . 1992. 'International Events and Foreign Policy Beliefs: Public Response to Changing U.S-Soviet Relations.' American Journal of Political Science 36(2): 431-61.
197. Peffley , Mark , and Jon Hurwitz . 1993. 'Models of Attitude Constraint in Foreign Affairs.' Political Behavior 15(1): 61-90.
198. Pharr , Susan J. , and Robert D. Putnam , Eds. 2000. Disaffected Democracies: What's Troubling the Trilateral Countries? Princeton: Princeton University Press.
199. Picard , Robert G. 1993. Media Portrayals of Terrorism: Functions and Meaning of News Coverage. Iowa: Iowa State University Press.
200. Pillar , Paul R. and Michael H. Armacost . 2001. Terrorism and U.S. Foreign Policy. Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution.
201. Pomper , Gerald . Ed. 1989. The Election of 1988. Chatham, NJ: Chatham House.
202. Pomponio , Arthur T. 2002. Psychological Consequences of Terrorism. New York: Wiley.
203. Postman , Neil . 1985. Amusing Ourselves to Death: Public Discourse in the Age of Show Business. New York: Penguin.
204. Presidential/Congressional Commission on Risk Assessment and Risk Management, 1997. Risk Assessment and Risk Management in Regulatory Decision-Making. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office.
205. Prothro , James W. , and Charles W. Grigg . 1960. 'Fundamental Principles of Democracy: Bases of Agreement and Disagreement,' Journal of Politics 22(2): 276-294.
206. Putnam , Robert D. 1995a. 'Bowling Alone: America's Declining Social Capital.' Journal of Democracy 6(1): 65-78.
207. Putnam , Robert D. 1995b. 'Tuning In, Tuning Out: The Strange Disappearance of Social Capital in America.' PS: Political Science and Politics 8(4): 664-683.
208. Putnam , Robert D. 2000. Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community. New York: Simon & Schuster.
209. Putnam , Robert . 'Bowling Together.' The American Prospect. February 11, 2002.
210. Rahn , Wendy and John Transue . 1998. 'Social Trust and Value Change: The Decline of Social Capital in American Youth, 1976-1995.' Political Psychology 19(3): 545-565.
211. Rapoport , D. Ed . 1988. Inside the Terrorist Organization. New York: Columbia University Press.
212. Reich , Walter. Ed . 1998. Origins of Terrorism: Psychologies, Ideologies, Theologies, States of Mind. Washington, D.C.: Woodrow Wilson Center Press.
213. Reid , E. O. F. 1997. 'Evolution of a Body of Knowledge: An Analysis of Terrorism Research.' Information Processing and Management. 33(1): 91-106.
214. Robinson , Michael J. 1976. 'Public Affairs Television and the Growth of Political Malaise: The Case of 'The Selling of the Pentagon.'' American Political Science Review 70(2): 409-32.
215. Rokeach , Milton . 1960. The Open and Closed Mind: Investigations into the Nature of Belief Systems and Personality Systems. New York: Basic Books.
216. Rosen , Jay . 2002. 'When the Networks Ran in Reverse: Reflections on the Terror in New York.' Journalism: Theory, Practice and Criticism 3(1).
217. Rosenberg , Morris A. 1956. 'Misanthropy and Political Ideology,' American Sociological Review 21(4): 690-695.
218. Rosenstone , Steven J. , and Mark Hansen . 1993. Mobilization, Participation, and Democracy in America. New York: Macmillan.
219. Rudenstine , David , 1996. The Day the Presses Stopped: A History of the Pentagon Papers Case. Berkeley: University of California Press.
220. Rusciano , Frank Louis . World Opinion and the Emerging International Order. Westport, CT: Praeger, 1998.
221. Sajó , András and Monroe Price . Eds. 1996. Rights of Access to the Media. The Hague: Kluwer Law International.
222. Schaffert , Richard W. 1992. Media Coverage and Political Terrorists: A Quantitative Analysis. New York: Praeger.
223. Schatz , Robert T. , and Ervin Staub . 1996. 'Manifestations of Blind and Constructive Patriotism: Personality Correlates and Individual-Group Relations,' In Daniel Bar-Tal and Ervin Stab Eds. Patriotism: In the Lives of Individuals and Nations. Chicago: Nelson-Hall Publishers.
224. Schecter , Danny . 2002. Media Wars: News at a Time of Terror, Dissecting News Since 9/11, Innovation.
225. Schiff , Z. & Ya'ari E. 1990. Intifada: The Palestinian Uprising-Israel's Third Front. NY: Simon and Schuster.
226. Schlesinger , Philip , Graham Murdock and Philip Elliott . 1983. Televising Terrorism: Political Violence in Popular Culture. London: Commedia Publishers.
227. Schlesinger , Philip . 1991. Media, State and Nation: Political Violence and Collective Identities. London: Sage.
228. Scholz , John T. , and Mark Lubell . 1998. 'Trust and Taxpaying: Testing the Heuristic Approach to Collective Action.' American Journal of Political Science 42(2): 398-417.
229. Schubert , J. N. , P. A. Stewart and M. A. Curran . 2002. 'A Defining Presidential Moment: 9/11 and the Rally Effect.' Political Psychology. 23(3): 559-583.
230. Schuster , Mark A. et al. 2001. 'A National Survey of Stress Reactions After the September 11, 2001, Terrorist Attacks,' The New England Journal of Medicine 345: 1507-1512.
231. Schwartz , D. M. 1998. 'Environmental terrorism: Analyzing the concept.' Journal of Peace Research. 35(4): 483-496.
232. Scraton , Phil. Ed . 2002. Beyond September 11: An Anthology of Dissent. London: Pluto Press.
233. Shaheen , Jack . 1997. Arab and Muslim Stereotypes in American Popular Culture. Washington, D.C.: Center for Muslim-Christian Understanding.
234. Shaheen , Jack . 2001. Reel Bad Arabs: How Hollywood Vilifies a People. Northampton, MA: Interlink Publishing Group.
235. Shamir , J. and K. Shikaki . 2002. 'Self-serving perceptions of terrorism among Israelis and Palestinians.' Political Psychology. 23(3): 537-557.
236. Shin , Michael and Michael D. Ward , 1999. 'Lost on Space: Political Geography and the Defense-Growth Trade-Off,' Journal of Conflict Resolution, 43(6): 793-817.
237. Sigelman , Lee and Carol Sigelman . 1974. 'The Politics of Political Culture: Campaign Cynicism' and The Candidate. Sociology and Social Research 58: 272-277.
238. Sigelman , Lee , and Pamela Johnston Conover . 1981. 'The Dynamics of Presidential Support During International Conflict Situations: The Iranian Hostage Crisis.' Political Behavior 3(4): 303-18.
239. Silberstein , Sandra . 2002. War of Words, London: Routledge.
240. Silverberg , Marshall , 1991. 'Constitutional Concerns in Denying the Press Access to Military Operations,' pp. 165-175 in Defense Beat: The Dilemmas of Defense Coverage, Loren B. Thompson , Ed. New York: Lexington Books, 1991.
241. Simon , Reeva . 1989. The Middle East in Crime Fiction. New York, N.Y.: Lilian Barber Press.
242. Slone , M. 2000. 'Responses to Media Coverage of Terrorism.' Journal of Conflict Resolution. 44(4): 508-522.
243. Slovic , P. 1987. 'Perception of Risk.' Science 236 (17 April): 280-285.
244. Smith , Tom W. , Kenneth A. Rasinksi , and Marianna Toce . 2001. America Rebounds: A National Study of Public Response to the September 11th Terrorist Attacks, Preliminary Findings. Chicago: National Opinion Research Center.
245. Sniderman , Paul M. , Joseph F. Fletcher , Peter H. Russell , and Philip E. Tetlock . 1996. The Clash of Rights: Liberty, Equality, and Legitimacy in Pluralist Democracy. New Haven: Yale University Press.
246. Stern , Jessica . 1999.The Ultimate Terrorists. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
247. Stokes , Donald E. 1962. 'Popular Evaluations of Government: An Empirical Assessment.' In Ethics and Bigness: Scientific, Academic, Religious, Political, and Military, Eds. Harlan Cleveland and Harold D. Lasswell . New York: Harper and Brothers.
248. Sullivan , John L. , Amy Fried , and Mary G. Dietz . 1992. 'Patriotism, Politics, and the Presidential Election of 1988.' American Journal of Political Science 36 (February): 200-234.
249. Surlin , Stuart H. 1978. 'Roots Research: A Summary of Findings.' Journal of Broadcasting, 22: 309-320.
250. Tetlock , Philip E. 1986. 'A Value Pluralism Model of Ideological Reasoning.' Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 50 (April): 819-827.
251. Thompson , Loren B. 1991. 'The Media Versus the Military: A Brief History of War Coverage in the United States.' pp. 3-56 in Defense Beat: The Dilemmas of Defense Coverage, Loren B. Thompson , Ed. New York: Lexington Books, 1991.
252. Thrall , A. Trevor . 2000. War in the Media Age. Cresskill, NJ: Hampton.
253. Tuchman , Gaye . 1978. Making News. New York: Free Press.
254. Tyler , T. R. and Fay Lomax Cook . 1984. 'The mass media and judgments of risk: Distinguishing impact on personal and societal level judgments.' Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 47(4): 693-708.
255. U.S. State Department. Patterns of Terrorism 2001. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of State.
256. Uslaner , Eric M. 2002. The Moral Foundations of Trust. New York: Cambridge University Press.
257. Wallack , Lawrence M , Lori Dorfman , David Jernigan , and Makani Themba . 1993. Media Advocacy and Public Health: Power for Prevention. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.
258. Wanta , W. and Y. W. Hu . 1993. 'The Agenda-Setting Effects of International News Coverage: An Examination of Differing News Frames.' International Journal of Public Opinion Research. 5(3): 250-264.
259. Wardlaw , Grant . 1982. Political Terrorism. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
260. Weatherford , M. Stephen . 1984. 'Economic 'Stagflation' and Public Support for the Political System.' British Journal of Political Science 14(2): 187-205.
261. Weimann , Gabriel and Conrad Winn , 1994. The Theater of Terror: The Mass Media and International Terrorism. New York: Longman Publishing/Addison-Wesley.
262. Weimann , Gabriel and H. B. Brosius . 1991. 'The Newsworthiness of International Terrorism.' Communication Research. 18(3): 333-354.
263. Weimann , Gabriel . 1987. 'Media Events: The Case of International Terrorism.' Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media. 31(1): 21-39.
264. Weissberg , Robert . 1976. 'Consensual Attitudes and Attitude Structure.' Public Opinion Quarterly 40(3): 349-359.
265. Weissberg , Robert . 1998. Political Tolerance: Balancing Community and Diversity. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
266. Whittaker , David . 2002. Terrorism: Understanding the Global Threat. New York: Longman.
267. Wolfsfeld , Gadi . 1997. 'Fair Weather Friends: The Varying Role of the News Media in the Arab-Israeli Peace Process.' Political Communications. 14(1): 29-48.
268. Wolfsfeld , Gadi . 1997. Media and Political Conflict: News from the Middle East, Cambridge, U.K: Cambridge University Press.
269. Wolfsfeld , Gadi . 2001. 'The News Media and the Second Intifada: Some Initial Lessons.' The Harvard Journal of Press/Politics 6: 113-118.
270. Wolfsfeld , Gadi . 2003. Media and the Path to Peace. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press.
271. Wrightsman , Lawrence S. 1991. 'Interpersonal Trust and Attitudes Toward Human Nature.' In Measures of Personality and Social Psychological Attitudes. Eds. John P. Robinson , Phillip R. Shaver , and Lawrence S. Wrightsman
272. Zaller , John R. 1992. The Nature and Origins of Mass Opinion. New York: Cambridge University Press.
273. Zelizer , Barbie and Allan Stuart . Eds. 2002. Journalism After September 11. London: Routledge.